The Rule of the Harlots
Encyclopedia
Saeculum obscurum is a name given to a period in the history of the Papacy
during the first half of the 10th century, beginning with the installation of Pope Sergius III
in 904 and lasting for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII
in 964.
in his Annales Ecclesiastici
in the sixteenth century. Baronius' primary source for his history of this period was Liutprand of Cremona
. Other scholars have dated the period more broadly or narrowly, and other terms, such as the Pornocracy ' onMouseout='HidePop("31297")' href="/topics/Greek_language">Greek
pornokratiā, "prostitute rule") and the Rule of the Harlots , were coined by Protestant German theologians in the nineteenth century.
Historian Will Durant
refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy". The Foundation for Medieval Genealogy covers the period 872-1048.
s were influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives. The family originated from Theophylactus
, who held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility such as Judex, vestararius, gloriosissimus dux, consul
and senator, and magister militum
. His wife Theodora and daughters, Theodora and Marozia
held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs and marriages.
Marozia became the concubine of Pope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands. She ensured that her son John was seated as Pope John XI
according to Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae (958–62), by Liutprand of Cremona
(c. 920–72). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former lover Pope John X
(who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husband Guy of Tuscany
possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite as Pope Leo VI. There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view.
Theodora and Marozia undoubtedly held great sway over the Popes during this time. In particular, as political rulers of Rome
they had effective control over the election of new Popes
. Much that is alleged about the saeculum obscurum comes from the histories of Liutprand, bishop of Cremona. Liutprand took part in the Assembly of Bishops which deposed Pope John XII
and was a political enemy of the Roman aristocracy and its control over Papal elections. He is described by the Catholic Encyclopedia
as "ever a strong partisan
and frequently unfair towards his adversaries."
family Popes up to 1012, the Theophylacti still occasionally nominated sons as Popes:
Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious Godfather, who became the unfortunate Pope Gregory VI
(1045-46). He then changed his mind, seized the Lateran Palace
and became Pope for the third time in 1047-48.
The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election of Pope Nicholas II
, who was lucky to be assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was elected Pope Gregory VII
in 1073 and introduced the Gregorian Reform
s, increasing the power and independence of the papacy.
History of the Papacy
The history of the papacy, the office held by the Pope as head of the Catholic Church, spans from the time of Saint Peter to present day.During the Early Church, the bishops of Rome enjoyed no temporal power until the time of Constantine...
during the first half of the 10th century, beginning with the installation of Pope Sergius III
Pope Sergius III
Pope Sergius III was a pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 29 January 904 to 14 April 911. Because Sergius III was possibly the only pope known to have ordered the murder of another pope and the only pope to have fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope , his reign has been described...
in 904 and lasting for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII
Pope John XII
Pope John XII , born Octavianus, was Pope from December 16, 955, to May 14, 964. The son of Alberic II, Patrician of Rome , and his stepsister Alda of Vienne, he was a seventh generation descendant of Charlemagne on his mother's side.Before his death, Alberic administered an oath to the Roman...
in 964.
Periodization
The period was first identified and named by the Italian Cardinal and ecclesiastical historian Caesar BaroniusCaesar Baronius
Cesare Baronio was an Italian Cardinal and ecclesiastical historian...
in his Annales Ecclesiastici
Annales ecclesiastici
Annales Ecclesiastici , consisting of twelve folio volumes, is a history of the first 12 centuries of the Christian Church, written by Cardinal Caesar Baronius...
in the sixteenth century. Baronius' primary source for his history of this period was Liutprand of Cremona
Liutprand of Cremona
Liutprand, also Liudprand, Liuprand, Lioutio, Liucius, Liuzo, and Lioutsios was a Lombard historian and author, and Bishop of Cremona....
. Other scholars have dated the period more broadly or narrowly, and other terms, such as the Pornocracy ' onMouseout='HidePop("31297")' href="/topics/Greek_language">Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
pornokratiā, "prostitute rule") and the Rule of the Harlots , were coined by Protestant German theologians in the nineteenth century.
Historian Will Durant
Will Durant
William James Durant was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. He is best known for The Story of Civilization, 11 volumes written in collaboration with his wife Ariel Durant and published between 1935 and 1975...
refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy". The Foundation for Medieval Genealogy covers the period 872-1048.
10th-century Popes
During this period, the PopePope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
s were influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives. The family originated from Theophylactus
Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum
Theophylact I was a medieval Count of Tusculum who served Louis III, Holy Roman Emperor as judex and then was elected to head Rome as consul by the city's nobility in 915, an appointment that was confirmed by the Pope. He also was styled as senator, glorissimus dux, judex dativus, and magister...
, who held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility such as Judex, vestararius, gloriosissimus dux, consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
and senator, and magister militum
Magister militum
Magister militum was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer of the Empire...
. His wife Theodora and daughters, Theodora and Marozia
Marozia
Marozia, born Maria and also known as Mariuccia or Mariozza , was a Roman noblewoman who was the alleged mistress of Pope Sergius III and was given the unprecedented titles senatrix and patricia of Rome by Pope John X.Edward Gibbon wrote of her that the "influence of two sister prostitutes,...
held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs and marriages.
Marozia became the concubine of Pope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands. She ensured that her son John was seated as Pope John XI
Pope John XI
Pope John XI was a Pope from March 931 to December 935.-Parentage:The parentage of John XI is still a matter of dispute. According to Liutprand of Cremona and the "Liber Pontificalis," he was the natural son of Pope Sergius III , Pope John XI (910? – December 935) was a Pope from March 931 (at...
according to Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae (958–62), by Liutprand of Cremona
Liutprand of Cremona
Liutprand, also Liudprand, Liuprand, Lioutio, Liucius, Liuzo, and Lioutsios was a Lombard historian and author, and Bishop of Cremona....
(c. 920–72). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former lover Pope John X
Pope John X
Pope John X, Pope from March 914 to May 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric of...
(who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husband Guy of Tuscany
Guy of Tuscany
Guy was the count and duke of Lucca and margrave of Tuscany from 915, the death of his father Adalbert II, to his own death. He was originally under the regency of his mother Bertha, daughter of Lothair II of Lotharingia, until 916.He kept court at Mantua around the year 920...
possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite as Pope Leo VI. There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view.
Theodora and Marozia undoubtedly held great sway over the Popes during this time. In particular, as political rulers of Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
they had effective control over the election of new Popes
Papal selection before 1059
There was no fixed process for papal selection before 1059. Popes, the bishops of Rome and the leaders of the Catholic Church, were often appointed by their predecessors or secular rulers...
. Much that is alleged about the saeculum obscurum comes from the histories of Liutprand, bishop of Cremona. Liutprand took part in the Assembly of Bishops which deposed Pope John XII
Pope John XII
Pope John XII , born Octavianus, was Pope from December 16, 955, to May 14, 964. The son of Alberic II, Patrician of Rome , and his stepsister Alda of Vienne, he was a seventh generation descendant of Charlemagne on his mother's side.Before his death, Alberic administered an oath to the Roman...
and was a political enemy of the Roman aristocracy and its control over Papal elections. He is described by the Catholic Encyclopedia
Catholic Encyclopedia
The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia and the Original Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language encyclopedia published in the United States. The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index...
as "ever a strong partisan
Partisan (political)
In politics, a partisan is a committed member of a political party. In multi-party systems, the term is widely understood to carry a negative connotation - referring to those who wholly support their party's policies and are perhaps even reluctant to acknowledge correctness on the part of their...
and frequently unfair towards his adversaries."
List of Popes during the saeculum obscurum
- Pope Sergius IIIPope Sergius IIIPope Sergius III was a pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 29 January 904 to 14 April 911. Because Sergius III was possibly the only pope known to have ordered the murder of another pope and the only pope to have fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope , his reign has been described...
(904–911), alleged lover of Marozia - Pope Anastasius IIIPope Anastasius IIIPope Anastasius III was Pope from April 911 to June 913, was a Roman by birth. A Roman nobleman, Lucian, is sometimes recognized as his father, although other sources assert that he was the illegitimate son of his predecessor Pope Sergius III .Practically nothing is recorded of Pope Anastasius...
(911–913) - Pope LandoPope LandoPope Lando was elected pope in either July or August 913. He died about six months later, in either February or March 914....
(913–914) - Pope John XPope John XPope John X, Pope from March 914 to May 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric of...
(914–928), alleged lover of Theodora (the mother), allegedly killed by Marozia - Pope Leo VI (928–928)
- Pope Stephen VIIPope Stephen VIIPope Stephen VII . Stephen was a Roman by birth, the son of Theodemundus, and perhaps a member of the Gabrielli family. He was elected—probably handpicked—by Marozia from the Tusculani family, as a stop-gap measure until her own son John was ready to assume the throne of Peter...
(928–931) - Pope John XIPope John XIPope John XI was a Pope from March 931 to December 935.-Parentage:The parentage of John XI is still a matter of dispute. According to Liutprand of Cremona and the "Liber Pontificalis," he was the natural son of Pope Sergius III , Pope John XI (910? – December 935) was a Pope from March 931 (at...
(931–935), son of Marozia, alleged son of Pope Sergius III - Pope Leo VIIPope Leo VIIPope Leo VII , Pope from January 3, 936 until his death in 939, was preceded by Pope John XI , and followed by Pope Stephen VIII . Leo VII's election to the papacy was secured by Alberic II of Spoleto, the monarch in Rome. Alberic wanted to choose the pope so that the papacy would continue to...
(936–939) - Pope Stephen VIIIPope Stephen VIIIPope Stephen VIII, a native of Germany, was pope from about July 14, 939 until his death towards the end of October 942.During his pontificate he was subject to Alberic II of Spoleto, Prince of the Romans, and did not effectively rule the Papal States...
(939–942) - Pope Marinus IIPope Marinus IIPope Marinus II , born in Rome, was Pope from 942 to 946. He was elevated to the papacy through intervention of Alberic II of Spoleto and concentrated on administrative aspects of the papacy.-External links:*...
(942–946) - Pope Agapetus IIPope Agapetus IIPope Agapetus II was Pope from May 10, 946 until his death in 955, at the time when Alberic II , son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of Rome under the title of "prince and senator of the Romans."...
(946–955) - Pope John XIIPope John XIIPope John XII , born Octavianus, was Pope from December 16, 955, to May 14, 964. The son of Alberic II, Patrician of Rome , and his stepsister Alda of Vienne, he was a seventh generation descendant of Charlemagne on his mother's side.Before his death, Alberic administered an oath to the Roman...
(955–963), grandson of Marozia, by her son Alberic II of Spoleto.
Family tree
The Tusculan Papacy, 1012-59
After several CrescentiiCrescentii
The Crescentii clan — if they were an extended family — essentially ruled Rome and controlled the Papacy from the middle of the 10th century until the nearly simultaneous deaths of their puppet pope Sergius IV and the patricius of the clan in 1012.-History:Several individuals named Crescentius who...
family Popes up to 1012, the Theophylacti still occasionally nominated sons as Popes:
- Pope Benedict VIIIPope Benedict VIIIPope Benedict VIII , born Theophylactus, Pope from 1012 to 1024, of the noble family of the counts of Tusculum , descended from Theophylact, Count of Tusculum like his predecessor Pope Benedict VI .Benedict VIII was opposed by an antipope, Gregory...
, son of Count Gregory IGregory I, Count of TusculumGregory I was the Count of Tusculum sometime between 954 and 1012. Consul et dux 961, vir illustrissimus 980, praefectus navalis 999. He was the son of Alberic II and Stephanie....
; (1012-24) - Pope John XIXPope John XIXPope John XIX , born Romanus, was Pope from 1024 to 1032.He succeeded his brother, Pope Benedict VIII , both being members of the powerful house of Tusculum...
, son of Count Gregory I, (1024-32) - Pope Benedict IXPope Benedict IXPope Benedict IX , born Theophylactus of Tusculum, was Pope on three occasions between 1032 and 1048. One of the youngest popes, he was the only man to have been Pope on more than one occasion and the only man ever to have sold the papacy.-Biography:Benedict was born in Rome as Theophylactus, the...
, son of Alberic IIIAlberic III, Count of TusculumAlberic III was the Count of Tusculum, along with Galeria, Preneste, and Arce, from 1024, when his brother the count Roman was elected Pope John XIX, until his own death...
; (1032-44; 1045; 1047-48) - Antipope Benedict XAntipope Benedict XPope/Antipope Benedict X , was born John Mincius, and later became Cardinal Bishop of Velletri. He was elected in 1058, his election having been arranged by the Count of Tusculum. However, a number of Cardinals alleged that the election was irregular, and that votes had been bought; these cardinals...
, son of Alberic III (1058-59); driven out of Rome after a small war.
Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious Godfather, who became the unfortunate Pope Gregory VI
Pope Gregory VI
Pope Gregory VI , born John Gratian , was Pope from 1 May 1045 until his abdication at the Council of Sutri on 20 December 1046....
(1045-46). He then changed his mind, seized the Lateran Palace
Lateran Palace
The Lateran Palace , formally the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran , is an ancient palace of the Roman Empire and later the main Papal residence....
and became Pope for the third time in 1047-48.
The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election of Pope Nicholas II
Pope Nicholas II
Pope Nicholas II , born Gérard de Bourgogne, Pope from 1059 to July 1061, was at the time of his election the Bishop of Florence.-Antipope Benedict X:...
, who was lucky to be assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was elected Pope Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
in 1073 and introduced the Gregorian Reform
Gregorian Reform
The Gregorian Reforms were a series of reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII and the circle he formed in the papal curia, circa 1050–80, which dealt with the moral integrity and independence of the clergy...
s, increasing the power and independence of the papacy.
See also
- List of sexually active popes
- Pope JoanPope JoanPope Joan is a legendary female Pope who, it is purported, reigned for a few years some time in the Middle Ages. The story first appeared in the writings of 13th-century chroniclers, and subsequently spread through Europe...
(legendary, probably fictional; legends about her may have stemmed from stories about the Pornocracy) - Papal appointmentPapal appointmentPapal appointment is the oldest method for the selection of the pope. Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by appointment by secular European rulers or by their predecessors...