Proper length
Encyclopedia
In relativistic physics, proper length is an invariant
measure of the distance
between two spacelike-separated events, or of the length of a spacelike path
within a spacetime
.
The measurement of lengths is more complicated in the theory of relativity
than in classical mechanics
. In classical mechanics, lengths are measured based on the assumption that the locations of all points involved are measured simultaneously. But in the theory of relativity, the notion of simultaneity
is dependent on the observer. Proper lengths provide an invariant measure, whose value is the same for all observers.
Proper length is analogous to proper time
. The difference is that proper length is the invariant interval of a spacelike path or pair of spacelike-separated events, while proper time is the invariant interval of a timelike path or pair of timelike-separated events.
, the proper length between two spacelike-separated events is the distance between the two events, as measured in an inertial frame of reference
in which the events are simultaneous. So if the two events occur at opposite ends of an object, the proper length of the object is the length of the object as measured by an observer which is at rest relative to the object.
In any inertial frame of reference, the proper length L is
,
where
Two events are spacelike-separated if and only if the above formula gives a real, non-zero value for L.
, in which curved spacetimes are considered. It is, however, possible to define the proper length of a path
in any spacetime, curved or flat. In a flat spacetime, the proper length between two events is the proper length of a straight path between the two events. In a curved spacetime, there may be more than one straight path (geodesic
) between two events, so the proper length of a straight path between two events would not uniquely define the proper length between the two events.
Along an arbitrary spacelike path P, the proper length is given in tensor
syntax by the line integral
,
where
In the equation above, the metric tensor is assumed to use the +--- metric signature
, and is assumed to be normalized to return a time
instead of a distance. The - sign in the equation should be dropped with a metric tensor that instead uses the -+++ metric signature. Also, the
should be dropped with a metric tensor that is normalized to use a distance, or that uses geometrized units
.
Invariant (physics)
In mathematics and theoretical physics, an invariant is a property of a system which remains unchanged under some transformation.-Examples:In the current era, the immobility of polaris under the diurnal motion of the celestial sphere is a classical illustration of physical invariance.Another...
measure of the distance
Distance
Distance is a numerical description of how far apart objects are. In physics or everyday discussion, distance may refer to a physical length, or an estimation based on other criteria . In mathematics, a distance function or metric is a generalization of the concept of physical distance...
between two spacelike-separated events, or of the length of a spacelike path
Path (topology)
In mathematics, a path in a topological space X is a continuous map f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to XThe initial point of the path is f and the terminal point is f. One often speaks of a "path from x to y" where x and y are the initial and terminal points of the path...
within a spacetime
Spacetime
In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions...
.
The measurement of lengths is more complicated in the theory of relativity
Theory of relativity
The theory of relativity, or simply relativity, encompasses two theories of Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. However, the word relativity is sometimes used in reference to Galilean invariance....
than in classical mechanics
Classical mechanics
In physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces...
. In classical mechanics, lengths are measured based on the assumption that the locations of all points involved are measured simultaneously. But in the theory of relativity, the notion of simultaneity
Relativity of simultaneity
In physics, the relativity of simultaneity is the concept that simultaneity–whether two events occur at the same time–is not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame. According to the special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense whether two events occur...
is dependent on the observer. Proper lengths provide an invariant measure, whose value is the same for all observers.
Proper length is analogous to proper time
Proper time
In relativity, proper time is the elapsed time between two events as measured by a clock that passes through both events. The proper time depends not only on the events but also on the motion of the clock between the events. An accelerated clock will measure a smaller elapsed time between two...
. The difference is that proper length is the invariant interval of a spacelike path or pair of spacelike-separated events, while proper time is the invariant interval of a timelike path or pair of timelike-separated events.
Proper length between two events
In special relativitySpecial relativity
Special relativity is the physical theory of measurement in an inertial frame of reference proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in the paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies".It generalizes Galileo's...
, the proper length between two spacelike-separated events is the distance between the two events, as measured in an inertial frame of reference
Inertial frame of reference
In physics, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference that describes time homogeneously and space homogeneously, isotropically, and in a time-independent manner.All inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect to one another; they are not...
in which the events are simultaneous. So if the two events occur at opposite ends of an object, the proper length of the object is the length of the object as measured by an observer which is at rest relative to the object.
In any inertial frame of reference, the proper length L is
,where
- Δt is the difference in the temporalTimeTime is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
coordinates of the two events, - Δx, Δy, and Δz are differences in the linearLinearIn mathematics, a linear map or function f is a function which satisfies the following two properties:* Additivity : f = f + f...
, orthogonal, spatial coordinates of the two events, and - c is the speed of lightSpeed of lightThe speed of light in vacuum, usually denoted by c, is a physical constant important in many areas of physics. Its value is 299,792,458 metres per second, a figure that is exact since the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time...
.
Two events are spacelike-separated if and only if the above formula gives a real, non-zero value for L.
Proper length of a path
The above formula for the proper length between two events assumes that the spacetime in which the two events occur is flat. Hence, the above formula cannot in general be used in general relativityGeneral relativity
General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916. It is the current description of gravitation in modern physics...
, in which curved spacetimes are considered. It is, however, possible to define the proper length of a path
Path (topology)
In mathematics, a path in a topological space X is a continuous map f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to XThe initial point of the path is f and the terminal point is f. One often speaks of a "path from x to y" where x and y are the initial and terminal points of the path...
in any spacetime, curved or flat. In a flat spacetime, the proper length between two events is the proper length of a straight path between the two events. In a curved spacetime, there may be more than one straight path (geodesic
Geodesic (general relativity)
In general relativity, a geodesic generalizes the notion of a "straight line" to curved spacetime. Importantly, the world line of a particle free from all external, non-gravitational, force is a particular type of geodesic...
) between two events, so the proper length of a straight path between two events would not uniquely define the proper length between the two events.
Along an arbitrary spacelike path P, the proper length is given in tensor
Tensor
Tensors are geometric objects that describe linear relations between vectors, scalars, and other tensors. Elementary examples include the dot product, the cross product, and linear maps. Vectors and scalars themselves are also tensors. A tensor can be represented as a multi-dimensional array of...
syntax by the line integral
Line integral
In mathematics, a line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated is evaluated along a curve.The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field...
,where
- gμν is the metric tensorMetric tensor (general relativity)In general relativity, the metric tensor is the fundamental object of study. It may loosely be thought of as a generalization of the gravitational field familiar from Newtonian gravitation...
for the current spacetimeSpacetimeIn physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions...
and coordinate mapping, and - dxμ is the coordinate separation between neighboring events along the path P.
In the equation above, the metric tensor is assumed to use the +--- metric signature
Metric signature
The signature of a metric tensor is the number of positive and negative eigenvalues of the metric. That is, the corresponding real symmetric matrix is diagonalised, and the diagonal entries of each sign counted...
, and is assumed to be normalized to return a time
Time
Time is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
instead of a distance. The - sign in the equation should be dropped with a metric tensor that instead uses the -+++ metric signature. Also, the
should be dropped with a metric tensor that is normalized to use a distance, or that uses geometrized unitsGeometrized unit system
A geometrized unit system or geometric unit system is a system of natural units in which the base physical units are chosen so that the speed of light in a vacuum, c, and the gravitational constant, G, are set equal to unity. c = 1 \ G = 1 \...
.
See also
- Invariant intervalInvariant intervalIn physics, the invariant interval is the measure of separation between two arbitrarily close events in the spacetime of general or special theory of relativity. It is invariant under the coordinate transformations from the covariance group of the theory...
- Proper timeProper timeIn relativity, proper time is the elapsed time between two events as measured by a clock that passes through both events. The proper time depends not only on the events but also on the motion of the clock between the events. An accelerated clock will measure a smaller elapsed time between two...
- Comoving distanceComoving distanceIn standard cosmology, comoving distance and proper distance are two closely related distance measures used by cosmologists to define distances between objects...
- Special relativitySpecial relativitySpecial relativity is the physical theory of measurement in an inertial frame of reference proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in the paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies".It generalizes Galileo's...
- General relativityGeneral relativityGeneral relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916. It is the current description of gravitation in modern physics...
- Relativity of simultaneityRelativity of simultaneityIn physics, the relativity of simultaneity is the concept that simultaneity–whether two events occur at the same time–is not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame. According to the special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense whether two events occur...