Pisgah Phase
Encyclopedia
The Pisgah Phase is an archaeological phase
of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture
in parts of Northeastern Tennessee
, Western North Carolina
and Northwestern South Carolina
.
n Geologic province
. On the rim of the region during an earlier phase, the sites were occupied for rather short periods with the interior of the region having sites occupied throughout the phase. Between about 1000 and 1250 CE, the region of northeastern Tennessee, western North Carolina
and northwestern South Carolina
was a subregional development of an local Woodland period
population who incorporated characteristics from the larger Mississippian culture
. The villages ranged from about a quarter of an acre to 6 acres (24,281.2 m²) which complexity and cultural pattern does not compare in size to the Mississippian in the south and west. However, the Mississippian cultural pattern influence was as far north as Lee County, Virginia
, and south to Oconee County, South Carolina. Pee Dee culture
expresses Pisgah cultural traits.
agriculture with as much as half of their food being derived from agriculture. The rich bottomlands near their villages were planted with many staples of indigenous agriculture, including the Three Sisters
(corn, beans, and squash/pumpkin), and sumpweed (Iva annua
).
s and palisades
, usually with the smaller sites clustering around the larger mound centers. They were invariably located within floodplains; the exceptions being temporary hunting camps. The majority of the sites are located in the Eastern and Central Appalachian Summit area, around the Asheville, Pigeon, and Hendersonville basins. Some Pisgah Phase sites, such as the Garden Creek Mound Site, have been found to have earth lodge
s during early phases of their occupation. At times these earth lodges either collapsed or were destroyed, and a platform mound constructed over them. This is interpreted by archaeologists as a shift in sociopolitical organization and community hierarchy. It is believed the earth lodges were used as egalitarian council houses and that the superimposition of substructure mounds for temples, chiefly residences and mortuary structures signaled a shift to a more stratified society with hereditary elites.
The houses of the Pisgah Phase were about 20 feet (6.1 m) square and tended to be rectangular. Walls were of single set post construction with wattle and daub
as a finishing material. Structures had interior support posts and interior partitions. Trenches were dug for an entry way, with rows of saplings arched over them and covered in wattle and daub for a tunnel like effect. The floors had a raised hearth
in the center. Around the houses within the palisade were common burials, fire pits and clay deposits used for storage pits and some as fire pits. There is evidence of smaller structures near the houses which are thought to be storage cribs for maize
and sweat houses. A larger council house fronted the homes surrounding the central plaza
opposite the village entrance. The palisades had off-set entrances.
s and perforated marginella shells. Included within certain graves in some sites show a social ranking having stone, clay, bone, shell and wood artifacts.
of the Smithsonian Institution
first identified Pisgah ceramics in 1884, Patricia Holden was the first to publish a detailed analysis of Pisgah pottery in 1966. Pisgah Phase pottery, unlike the vast majority of Mississippian culture pottery
, used sand as a tempering agent instead of ground mussel
shell. The pottery is typified by collared rims and rectilinear, complicated stamp decoration. The designs are similar to northern Iroquois
ceramics. The complicated stamping designs was found to be like Etowah
of the Piedmont
region and Hiwassee Island designs of the Ridge and Valley province. Bolder check stamping becomes a minority style and some having rectilinear motifs, some curvilinear towards the end of the phase. For the most part, these became more common on the Blue Ridge basins of western North Carolina and northwestern South Carolina after 1250 CE. The following Qualla Phase pottery is thought to be the result of the merging of Lamar and Pisgah Phases lifestyles about 1450 CE.
, French Broad
, Hiwassee
, Little Tennessee
, and Pigeon River
s in North Carolina. Specific sites include the following:
Archaeological phase
Archaeological phase and phasing refers to the logical reduction of contexts recorded during excavation to near contemporary archaeological horizons that represent a distinct "phase" of previous land use. These often but not always will be a representation of a former land surface or occupation...
of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture
Mississippian culture
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE, varying regionally....
in parts of Northeastern Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...
, Western North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
and Northwestern South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
.
Location
The phase covered a 14000 square miles (36,259.8 km²) region in the South AppalachiaAppalachia
Appalachia is a term used to describe a cultural region in the eastern United States that stretches from the Southern Tier of New York state to northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia. While the Appalachian Mountains stretch from Belle Isle in Canada to Cheaha Mountain in the U.S...
n Geologic province
Geologic province
A geologic or geomorphic province is a spatial entity with common geologic or geomorphic attributes. A province may include a single dominant structural element such as a basin or a fold belt, or a number of contiguous related elements...
. On the rim of the region during an earlier phase, the sites were occupied for rather short periods with the interior of the region having sites occupied throughout the phase. Between about 1000 and 1250 CE, the region of northeastern Tennessee, western North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
and northwestern South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
was a subregional development of an local Woodland period
Woodland period
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland Period" was introduced in the 1930s as a generic header for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the...
population who incorporated characteristics from the larger Mississippian culture
Mississippian culture
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE, varying regionally....
. The villages ranged from about a quarter of an acre to 6 acres (24,281.2 m²) which complexity and cultural pattern does not compare in size to the Mississippian in the south and west. However, the Mississippian cultural pattern influence was as far north as Lee County, Virginia
Lee County, Virginia
According to the census 2009 estimates, there were 25001 people, 11,587 households, and 6,852 families residing in the county. The population density was 54 people per square mile . There were 11,587 housing units at an average density of 25 per square mile...
, and south to Oconee County, South Carolina. Pee Dee culture
Pee Dee (tribe)
The Pee Dee tribe are a nation of Native Americans of the southeast United States, especially the Low Country of present-day South Carolina. Several tribes are recognized by the state, although none has federal recognition. The Pee Dee River and the Pee Dee region of South Carolina were named for...
expresses Pisgah cultural traits.
Subsistence
Pisgah Phase peoples, like other Mississippian cultures peoples, consumed a variety of wild animal and plant foods. They hunted the wooded uplands for white tail deer, bear, and wild turkey. But, unlike their predecessors in the region, they were also heavily dependent on maizeMaize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
agriculture with as much as half of their food being derived from agriculture. The rich bottomlands near their villages were planted with many staples of indigenous agriculture, including the Three Sisters
Three Sisters (agriculture)
The Three Sisters are the three main agricultural crops of various Native American groups in North America: squash, maize, and climbing beans ....
(corn, beans, and squash/pumpkin), and sumpweed (Iva annua
Iva annua
Iva annua, sumpweed or marshelder, is an herbaceous annual plant native to much of North America.-Uses:Iva annua var. macrocarpa was formerly cultivated by Native Americans in the central eastern United States and specifically the indigenous peoples of the Kansas City Hopewell culture in present...
).
Architecture
Pisgah Phase sites ranged from individual farmsteads to large nucleated villages with platform moundPlatform mound
A platform mound is any earthwork or mound intended to support a structure or activity.-Eastern North America:The indigenous peoples of North America built substructure mounds for well over a thousand years starting in the Archaic period and continuing through the Woodland period...
s and palisades
Palisades
A palisade is a steel or wooden fence or wall of variable height, usually used as a defensive structure.Palisade or Palisades also may refer to:-Geology:United States...
, usually with the smaller sites clustering around the larger mound centers. They were invariably located within floodplains; the exceptions being temporary hunting camps. The majority of the sites are located in the Eastern and Central Appalachian Summit area, around the Asheville, Pigeon, and Hendersonville basins. Some Pisgah Phase sites, such as the Garden Creek Mound Site, have been found to have earth lodge
Earth lodge
An earth lodge is a semi-subterranean building covered partially or completely with earth, best known from the Native American cultures of the Great Plains and Eastern Woodlands. Most earth lodges are circular in construction with a dome-like roof, often with a central or slightly-offset smoke...
s during early phases of their occupation. At times these earth lodges either collapsed or were destroyed, and a platform mound constructed over them. This is interpreted by archaeologists as a shift in sociopolitical organization and community hierarchy. It is believed the earth lodges were used as egalitarian council houses and that the superimposition of substructure mounds for temples, chiefly residences and mortuary structures signaled a shift to a more stratified society with hereditary elites.
The houses of the Pisgah Phase were about 20 feet (6.1 m) square and tended to be rectangular. Walls were of single set post construction with wattle and daub
Wattle and daub
Wattle and daub is a composite building material used for making walls, in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed with a sticky material usually made of some combination of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw...
as a finishing material. Structures had interior support posts and interior partitions. Trenches were dug for an entry way, with rows of saplings arched over them and covered in wattle and daub for a tunnel like effect. The floors had a raised hearth
Hearth
In common historic and modern usage, a hearth is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven often used for cooking and/or heating. For centuries, the hearth was considered an integral part of a home, often its central or most important feature...
in the center. Around the houses within the palisade were common burials, fire pits and clay deposits used for storage pits and some as fire pits. There is evidence of smaller structures near the houses which are thought to be storage cribs for maize
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
and sweat houses. A larger council house fronted the homes surrounding the central plaza
Plaza
Plaza is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open urban public space, such as a city square. All through Spanish America, the plaza mayor of each center of administration held three closely related institutions: the cathedral, the cabildo or administrative center, which might be...
opposite the village entrance. The palisades had off-set entrances.
Burial
There are three types of burials associated with the Pisgah Phase. These are side-chamber pits, central-chamber pits and simple pits. High ranking adults and infants were placed within the side-chamber location in a loose flexed position with their head towards the west. The burials have produced adult skulls showing artificial cranial deformation. The adult graves also had shell ear pins, turtle-shell rattles, shell bowels and perforated animal bones bones. The infant's grave objects included calumella shell beads, shell gorgetShell gorget
A shell gorget is a Native American art form of polished, carved shell pendants worn around the neck. The gorgets are frequently engraved, and are sometimes highlighted with pigments, or fenestrated ....
s and perforated marginella shells. Included within certain graves in some sites show a social ranking having stone, clay, bone, shell and wood artifacts.
Ceramics
While William Henry HolmesWilliam Henry Holmes
William Henry Holmes was an American anthropologist, archaeologist, geologist and museum director.-Life:...
of the Smithsonian Institution
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Institution is an educational and research institute and associated museum complex, administered and funded by the government of the United States and by funds from its endowment, contributions, and profits from its retail operations, concessions, licensing activities, and magazines...
first identified Pisgah ceramics in 1884, Patricia Holden was the first to publish a detailed analysis of Pisgah pottery in 1966. Pisgah Phase pottery, unlike the vast majority of Mississippian culture pottery
Mississippian culture pottery
Mississippian culture pottery is the ceramic tradition of the Mississippian culture found as artifacts in archaeological sites in the American Midwest and Southeast. It is often characterized by the adoption and use of riverine shell-tempering agents in the clay paste. Shell tempering is one of...
, used sand as a tempering agent instead of ground mussel
Mussel
The common name mussel is used for members of several families of clams or bivalvia mollusca, from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, which are often more or less rounded or oval.The...
shell. The pottery is typified by collared rims and rectilinear, complicated stamp decoration. The designs are similar to northern Iroquois
Iroquois
The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...
ceramics. The complicated stamping designs was found to be like Etowah
Etowah Indian Mounds
Etowah Indian Mounds is a archaeological site in Bartow County, Georgia south of Cartersville, in the United States. Built and occupied in three phases, from 1000–1550 CE, the prehistoric site is located on the north shore of the Etowah River. Etowah Indian Mounds Historic Site is a designated...
of the Piedmont
Piedmont (United States)
The Piedmont is a plateau region located in the eastern United States between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the main Appalachian Mountains, stretching from New Jersey in the north to central Alabama in the south. The Piedmont province is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division...
region and Hiwassee Island designs of the Ridge and Valley province. Bolder check stamping becomes a minority style and some having rectilinear motifs, some curvilinear towards the end of the phase. For the most part, these became more common on the Blue Ridge basins of western North Carolina and northwestern South Carolina after 1250 CE. The following Qualla Phase pottery is thought to be the result of the merging of Lamar and Pisgah Phases lifestyles about 1450 CE.
Chronological position
The Pisgah Phase is a part of the Southern Appalachian Summit Archaeology which includes the following chronology :- Archaic Period, ca. 7500–4300 BCE
- Morrow Mountain Phase, ca. 4300–2500 BCE
- Savannah River Phase, ca. 2500–750 BCE
- Swannanoa Phase, ca. 750~150 BCE
- Pigeon Phase, ca. 200 BCE–100 CE
- Connestee Phase, 150–1000 CE
- Pisgah Phase, 1000-1500 CE
- Qualla Phase, ca. 1500 CE–1850 CE
Sites
Most Pisgah sites are found along the CatawbaCatawba River
The Catawba River is a tributary of the Wateree River in the U.S. states of North Carolina and South Carolina. The river is approximately 220 miles long...
, French Broad
French Broad River
The French Broad River flows from near the village of Rosman in Transylvania County, North Carolina, into the state of Tennessee. Its confluence with the Holston River at Knoxville is the beginning of the Tennessee River....
, Hiwassee
Hiwassee River
The Hiwassee River has its headwaters on the north slope of Rocky Mountain in Towns County in northern Georgia and flows northward into North Carolina before turning westward into Tennessee, flowing into the Tennessee River a few miles west of State Route 58 in Meigs County, Tennessee...
, Little Tennessee
Little Tennessee River
The Little Tennessee River is a tributary of the Tennessee River, approximately 135 miles long, in the Appalachian Mountains in the southeastern United States.-Geography:...
, and Pigeon River
Pigeon River
The Pigeon River may refer to:* Pigeon River , between Minnesota, USA and Ontario, Canada in North America*One of four rivers named the Pigeon River in Michigan, USA...
s in North Carolina. Specific sites include the following:
- Asheville
- Blair Mound, near Winnsboro, South CarolinaWinnsboro, South CarolinaWinnsboro is a town in Fairfield County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 3,599 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Fairfield County. Winnsboro is part of the Columbia, South Carolina Metropolitan Statistical Area....
- Brunk Site, Buncombe County, North CarolinaBuncombe County, North Carolina-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 206,330 people, 85,776 households, and 55,668 families residing in the county. The population density was 314 people per square mile . There were 93,973 housing units at an average density of 143 per square mile...
- Garden Creek Mound (31HW1),
- Hendersonville
- McDowell Site (31MC41), in McDowell County, North CarolinaMcDowell County, North Carolina-Cities and towns:*Marion *Old Fort-Unincorporated places:*West Marion*Little Switzerland*Nebo*Glenwood*Pleasant Gardens*North Cove-Education:The following is a list of schools located in McDowell County:*Marion Elementary School...
- Pigeon
- Ward site, Watauga County, North CarolinaWatauga County, North Carolina-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 42,695 people, 16,540 households, and 9,411 families residing in the county. The population density was 137 people per square mile . There were 23,155 housing units at an average density of 74 per square mile...
- Warren Wilson site, east of AshevilleAsheville, North CarolinaAsheville is a city in and the county seat of Buncombe County, North Carolina, United States. It is the largest city in Western North Carolina, and the 11th largest city in North Carolina. The City is home to the United States National Climatic Data Center , which is the world's largest active...