Periphery countries
Encyclopedia
In World Systems Theory
, the periphery countries (sometimes referred to as just the periphery) are those that are less developed than the semi-periphery
and core countries
. These countries usually receive a disproportionately small share of global wealth
. They have weak state institutions and are dependent on – according to some, exploited by – more developed countries. These countries are usually behind because of obstacles such as lack of technology, unstable government, and poor education and health systems. The periphery countries are crucial to this theory because they are how the core countries
remain in power. By the exploitation of periphery country's agriculture, cheap labor, and natural resources core countries
can remain dominant. This is best described by dependency theory
, which is one theory
on how globalization
can affect the world and the countries in it. It is, however, possible for periphery countries to rise out of their status and move into semi-periphery
or core
status. This can be done by doing things such as industrializing
, stabilizing the government, etc.
will exploit them for cheap labor and will even purposely interfere with their politics to keep things this way. Usually a peripheral country will specialize in one particular industry, leaving it vulnerable to economic instability and limiting international investment. Sometimes countries decide to isolate themselves, such as 14th century China.
. Another way periphery countries come to be is either the lack of a central government
or the periphery country is under the control of another country. Periphery countries are known for exporting raw goods to core countries
. What tends to happen is the maximum gain a periphery nation could earn is less than needed to maintain an equilibrium between costs and revenues. One thing periphery nations could do is to stop the increase of exports. At the beginning of the 19th century, Asia and Africa were considered periphery and their lack of development enabled the United States and Germany to remain successful core nations.
Although periphery nations are exploited by core countries
,there is a purpose to the unequal exchanges of goods. For instance, the core countries
have an incentive to gain a profit
and this enables the world
market
to further grow. At times, there is a change in the balance of trade between the periphery and core countries
. This occurs when the prices of exports from periphery countries decrease at a faster rate than the exports from core nations. In this case,the governments of the periphery nation are affected in several ways. For instance, there is an increase in unemployment
as well as a decrease in state income. This type of interaction is unique because the core country involved is somewhat weaker than normal. An example of this occurring is the growth of the industrial capabilities of Italy
and Russia
towards the end of the 19th century. This has also occurred in other periphery nations such as Brazil
, Mexico
, and South Africa
.
Two examples of periphery countries in the late 15th century and early 16th century are Poland
and Latin America
. At this time, Poland
was mainly exporting wheat to other areas of Europe
and Poland
wanted cheap labor. As a result, landlords enslaved rural workers on their estate lands. Also, Latin America
experienced an enslavement of their natives and imports of slaves from Africa
. Forced mining labor was placed on the slaves, which enabled Latin America
to export cheap goods to Europe
. Both Poland
and Latin America
were similar during this time period because the aristocrats
of these areas became more wealthy due to their interactions with the world economy
. These areas of the world were also different than they were during the medieval times in Europe
. They are different because during the late 15th century and early 16th century, Poland
and Latin America
were producing goods and exporting them rather than simply consuming their raw goods.
is one that is defined by the exploitation of the periphery countries by the core countries
. As many countries began to industrialize they looked for cheap goods and products. These industrialized "core" countries would then look to the less developed "periphery" countries for cheap goods. In most cases it is much easier and inexpensive to get these goods from other countries. Core countries realized this and began to use these cheap resources.
For the core countries
to remain at the core, it is necessary that the periphery countries keep producing these cheap goods and remain mostly agricultural. The core countries
are able to get goods very cheaply from the periphery and then are able to manufacture products and sell them at a relatively high price. The periphery countries are unable to make any gains because of this relationship and it is therefore impossible for them to ever industrialize. It is argued that if these countries are never able industrialize, they will continue to remain on the periphery.
and periphery countries was mostly defined in the era of imperialism
that occurred in the late 19th through the early 20th centuries. It was at this time that the countries with the strongest economies and militaries began to exploit those countries with weaker states. A result of this exploitation was the tendency of underdeveloped states or colonies to move more towards the production of one type of export
that would then come to dominate their economy
. Some examples of the time include Brazil's coffee
production and Cuba's cigar
production.
due to the exportation of surpluses of raw goods to the more technologically industrialized core countries
for manufacturing and distribution. Recently some of the manufacturing has been moved to periphery countries but it is still controlled and owned by the core countries
. There are, however, ways in which periphery countries can rise from their poor status and become semi-periphery countries
or even core countries
. It is crucial for the core countries
to keep exploiting the natural resources of the periphery countries and to keep the governments semi-stable or else it could cause economic unrest for the core countries
as a whole.
to benefit themselves rather than core countries
, and creating a better education system. Developing a banking system that can compete on a global scale is also another way in which periphery countries can help better themselves in the global market.
status is through the stabilization of its government. A country with a dictatorship
type government is much easier to exploit and corrupt than one with a well organized, elected government and core countries
use this to their advantage. Political unrest is usually a cause for military action from the core countries
in order to protect their interests and keep a cooperative dictator or government in power. Once the citizens of these countries become exploited enough, they can stage a coup in order to overthrow their government and put someone who they feel will help the country into power. If this is done successfully and the new leader is stays true to his/her word, the country can take the next necessary step in rising from periphery status and that is to start to industrialize.
Some Neo-Marxists believe that it would actually be best for periphery countries to cut all economic and political ties with the core countries
. This would, in their opinion, allow the periphery countries to develop and industrialize at their own pace instead of being exploited and driven by core countries
demands. Doing this would allow these countries to spend their money on industrializing and bettering themselves, rather than importing goods from core countries
. It also would allow these countries to become more independent from the core countries
, causing them to move to semi-peripheral status.
In order for a periphery country to industrialize, it must first undergo proto-industrialization
. In this stage, a market-based economy begins to form, normally in rural areas, using agricultural products. Proto-industrialization
also helps to organize the rural market in these country and allows for them to become more capitalistic. Finally, once these countries develop this style of economy, they can begin to build factories and machines.
rate allows ideas to spread more quickly through a country and also allows people to better communicate with themselves and the rest of the world. Also once universities are developed a country can begin to research new technology. Researching new technology can help a country to better compete in a global market by becoming more efficient or selling new technology and industrial techniques. If education and industry is allowed to become developed enough it is entirely possible for a periphery country to rise to core country status and become a leader in the global market. Another way in which periphery countries better their education system is by spending money to send university level students and staff abroad to places such as the U.S. and Europe to receive better education.
Once the people in these countries have become educated enough and they realize their place in the world economy, they can also demand help from the core countries
. Although unlikely, due to the fact that the core countries
rely on the exploitation of the periphery, there have been pushes for core countries
to help better the periphery countries. Some of the ideas suggested are to help aid the periphery countries in developing by exploiting them less, help the periphery countries lose some of their debt and raise the prices on goods coming from these countries to allow them to be more profitable. These policies are obviously not beneficial to the core countries
and is mostly why they have never been adapted successfully but this is another way in which the periphery could rise to a higher status.
the Soviet Union was industrialized under the rule of Joseph Stalin
. Industrialization peaked in 1929-1932 in a rapid campaign
described as "a revolution from above". Former personal private farms were collectivized in the early 1930s and gradually supplied with tractors and other machinery. Mechanization of farm labor, among other factors, contributed to freeing up workers for the newly built factories. In 1928-1932 alone at least ten million peasants migrated to the cities, causing "an unprecedented demographic upheaval". Industrialization allowed the country to trade in the global trade market. By the 1950s and 60s, only about 30 years after it began to industrialize, the Soviet Union was considered by most scholars a core country along with the United States.
it will be more dependent on other periphery countries for natural resources
. They may also start to exploit other periphery countries to continue to better themselves. One of the biggest impacts of this rise of status is the effects it has on the people of these countries. Health care
is one of the first major improvements these countries will see, people will no longer die in mass from diseases such as malaria
and will be better treated for non-communicable diseases.
Education
is also another way in which the citizens will benefit. As a country
becomes richer, it is able to build more schools and better fund the schools already built. This was seen in Russia
after the October Revolution
. A better educated public leads to a more efficient workforce
, and can also lead the country to technological breakthroughs in industry
and manufacturing
. These countries will also experience much less severe famine now that they are able to trade successfully on a global
scale.
(Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000)).
And this is the periphery listing according to Babones and Alvarez-Rivadulla (2007), who note that this list is composed of countries that "have been consistently classified into a single one of the three zones [core, semi-periphery or periphery] of the world economy over the entire 28-year study period".
World Systems Theory
The world-systems theory is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change....
, the periphery countries (sometimes referred to as just the periphery) are those that are less developed than the semi-periphery
Semi-periphery countries
In world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries...
and core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. These countries usually receive a disproportionately small share of global wealth
International inequality
International inequality is inequality between countries . Economic differences between rich and poor countries are considerable...
. They have weak state institutions and are dependent on – according to some, exploited by – more developed countries. These countries are usually behind because of obstacles such as lack of technology, unstable government, and poor education and health systems. The periphery countries are crucial to this theory because they are how the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
remain in power. By the exploitation of periphery country's agriculture, cheap labor, and natural resources core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
can remain dominant. This is best described by dependency theory
Dependency theory
Dependency theory or dependencia theory is a body of social science theories predicated on the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former...
, which is one theory
Theory
The English word theory was derived from a technical term in Ancient Greek philosophy. The word theoria, , meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", and referring to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action...
on how globalization
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Most often, it refers to economics: the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import...
can affect the world and the countries in it. It is, however, possible for periphery countries to rise out of their status and move into semi-periphery
Semi-periphery countries
In world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries...
or core
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
status. This can be done by doing things such as industrializing
Industrialisation
Industrialization is the process of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one...
, stabilizing the government, etc.
Background
Periphery countries are those that exist on the outer edges of global trade. There could be many reasons for a country to be considered peripheral, such as a dysfunctional or inefficient government. For example, some nations customs and ports are so inefficient that even though they are geographically closer it is cheaper to ship goods from longer distances. Other reasons such as wars, non-central location, insufficient infrastructure (rail lines, roads and communications) will keep a country in the periphery of global trade. Generally the populations tend to be poor and destitute so the core countriesCore countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
will exploit them for cheap labor and will even purposely interfere with their politics to keep things this way. Usually a peripheral country will specialize in one particular industry, leaving it vulnerable to economic instability and limiting international investment. Sometimes countries decide to isolate themselves, such as 14th century China.
Formation
There are a whole bunch of reasons that periphery countries remain the way they are. One important factor that keeps countries in the periphery is the lack of development of technologyTechnology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
. Another way periphery countries come to be is either the lack of a central government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
or the periphery country is under the control of another country. Periphery countries are known for exporting raw goods to core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. What tends to happen is the maximum gain a periphery nation could earn is less than needed to maintain an equilibrium between costs and revenues. One thing periphery nations could do is to stop the increase of exports. At the beginning of the 19th century, Asia and Africa were considered periphery and their lack of development enabled the United States and Germany to remain successful core nations.
Although periphery nations are exploited by core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
,there is a purpose to the unequal exchanges of goods. For instance, the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
have an incentive to gain a profit
Profit (economics)
In economics, the term profit has two related but distinct meanings. Normal profit represents the total opportunity costs of a venture to an entrepreneur or investor, whilst economic profit In economics, the term profit has two related but distinct meanings. Normal profit represents the total...
and this enables the world
World
World is a common name for the whole of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth....
market
Market
A market is one of many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services in exchange for money from buyers...
to further grow. At times, there is a change in the balance of trade between the periphery and core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. This occurs when the prices of exports from periphery countries decrease at a faster rate than the exports from core nations. In this case,the governments of the periphery nation are affected in several ways. For instance, there is an increase in unemployment
Unemployment
Unemployment , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks...
as well as a decrease in state income. This type of interaction is unique because the core country involved is somewhat weaker than normal. An example of this occurring is the growth of the industrial capabilities of Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
towards the end of the 19th century. This has also occurred in other periphery nations such as Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, and South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
.
1400's and 1500's
The world system at this time was much different from the world system of today. Several areas were beginning to develop into trading powers but none were able to gain total control. For this reason a core and periphery developed in each region as opposed to a global scale. Cities began to become the "core" with the more agricultural countryside becoming a sort of "periphery". The most underdeveloped region that was still involved in trade at the time was Europe. It had the weakest core and periphery areas.Two examples of periphery countries in the late 15th century and early 16th century are Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
. At this time, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
was mainly exporting wheat to other areas of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
wanted cheap labor. As a result, landlords enslaved rural workers on their estate lands. Also, Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
experienced an enslavement of their natives and imports of slaves from Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
. Forced mining labor was placed on the slaves, which enabled Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
to export cheap goods to Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. Both Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
were similar during this time period because the aristocrats
Aristocracy (class)
The aristocracy are people considered to be in the highest social class in a society which has or once had a political system of Aristocracy. Aristocrats possess hereditary titles granted by a monarch, which once granted them feudal or legal privileges, or deriving, as in Ancient Greece and India,...
of these areas became more wealthy due to their interactions with the world economy
World economy
The world economy, or global economy, generally refers to the economy, which is based on economies of all of the world's countries, national economies. Also global economy can be seen as the economy of global society and national economies – as economies of local societies, making the global one....
. These areas of the world were also different than they were during the medieval times in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. They are different because during the late 15th century and early 16th century, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
were producing goods and exporting them rather than simply consuming their raw goods.
Interactions
The relationship that the periphery countries have with the core countriesCore countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
is one that is defined by the exploitation of the periphery countries by the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. As many countries began to industrialize they looked for cheap goods and products. These industrialized "core" countries would then look to the less developed "periphery" countries for cheap goods. In most cases it is much easier and inexpensive to get these goods from other countries. Core countries realized this and began to use these cheap resources.
For the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
to remain at the core, it is necessary that the periphery countries keep producing these cheap goods and remain mostly agricultural. The core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
are able to get goods very cheaply from the periphery and then are able to manufacture products and sell them at a relatively high price. The periphery countries are unable to make any gains because of this relationship and it is therefore impossible for them to ever industrialize. It is argued that if these countries are never able industrialize, they will continue to remain on the periphery.
Imperialism's effect on Core-Periphery Interactions
The current relationship between core countriesCore countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
and periphery countries was mostly defined in the era of imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
that occurred in the late 19th through the early 20th centuries. It was at this time that the countries with the strongest economies and militaries began to exploit those countries with weaker states. A result of this exploitation was the tendency of underdeveloped states or colonies to move more towards the production of one type of export
Export
The term export is derived from the conceptual meaning as to ship the goods and services out of the port of a country. The seller of such goods and services is referred to as an "exporter" who is based in the country of export whereas the overseas based buyer is referred to as an "importer"...
that would then come to dominate their economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
. Some examples of the time include Brazil's coffee
Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a dark,init brooo acidic flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, colloquially called coffee beans. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia,...
production and Cuba's cigar
Cigar
A cigar is a tightly-rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth. Cigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Philippines, and the Eastern...
production.
Economic Possibilities
Periphery countries are continuously exploited by core countriesCore countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
due to the exportation of surpluses of raw goods to the more technologically industrialized core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
for manufacturing and distribution. Recently some of the manufacturing has been moved to periphery countries but it is still controlled and owned by the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. There are, however, ways in which periphery countries can rise from their poor status and become semi-periphery countries
Semi-periphery countries
In world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries...
or even core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. It is crucial for the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
to keep exploiting the natural resources of the periphery countries and to keep the governments semi-stable or else it could cause economic unrest for the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
as a whole.
Ways to Improve
There are several ways in which periphery countries are able to escape their poor status. Some of these ways are stabilizing their governments, becoming more industrialized and using natural resourcesNatural Resources
Natural Resources is a soul album released by Motown girl group Martha Reeves and the Vandellas in 1970 on the Gordy label. The album is significant for the Vietnam War ballad "I Should Be Proud" and the slow jam, "Love Guess Who"...
to benefit themselves rather than core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
, and creating a better education system. Developing a banking system that can compete on a global scale is also another way in which periphery countries can help better themselves in the global market.
Stabilized government
One main way in which a periphery country can rise to semi-periphery or coreCore
- Science and Academics :* Core , in mathematics, an object in group theory* Core , in mathematics, a subset of the domain of a closable operator* Core , in mathematics, the homomorphically minimal subgraph of a graph...
status is through the stabilization of its government. A country with a dictatorship
Dictatorship
A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:...
type government is much easier to exploit and corrupt than one with a well organized, elected government and core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
use this to their advantage. Political unrest is usually a cause for military action from the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
in order to protect their interests and keep a cooperative dictator or government in power. Once the citizens of these countries become exploited enough, they can stage a coup in order to overthrow their government and put someone who they feel will help the country into power. If this is done successfully and the new leader is stays true to his/her word, the country can take the next necessary step in rising from periphery status and that is to start to industrialize.
Some Neo-Marxists believe that it would actually be best for periphery countries to cut all economic and political ties with the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. This would, in their opinion, allow the periphery countries to develop and industrialize at their own pace instead of being exploited and driven by core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
demands. Doing this would allow these countries to spend their money on industrializing and bettering themselves, rather than importing goods from core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. It also would allow these countries to become more independent from the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
, causing them to move to semi-peripheral status.
Industrializing
Most periphery countries rely almost entirely on agriculture and other natural resources such as oil, coal, and diamonds in order to gain some sort of profit, but this also keeps them from growing economically. In order for them to grow they must industrialize in order to produce finished goods for exportation around the world, instead of allowing the core countries to profit from their natural resources. Industrializing and adapting newer technology is one of the major ways in which periphery countries can begin to raise their standard of living and help increase the wealth of their citizens. Becoming industrialized also will help to force trade to come to their cities, if they can produce goods at competitive prices, allowing them to reach out to the global market and take hold. Once a periphery country can industrialize, and use its own resources to its own benefit, it will begin to enter semi-periphery status.In order for a periphery country to industrialize, it must first undergo proto-industrialization
Proto-industrialization
Proto-industrialisation is a phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded, and created conditions for, the establishment of fully industrial societies...
. In this stage, a market-based economy begins to form, normally in rural areas, using agricultural products. Proto-industrialization
Proto-industrialization
Proto-industrialisation is a phase in the development of modern industrial economies that preceded, and created conditions for, the establishment of fully industrial societies...
also helps to organize the rural market in these country and allows for them to become more capitalistic. Finally, once these countries develop this style of economy, they can begin to build factories and machines.
Education
One of the final steps for a periphery country to rise to semi-periphery or core status is to educate its citizens. Raising the literacyLiteracy
Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read for knowledge, write coherently and think critically about printed material.Literacy represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from print...
rate allows ideas to spread more quickly through a country and also allows people to better communicate with themselves and the rest of the world. Also once universities are developed a country can begin to research new technology. Researching new technology can help a country to better compete in a global market by becoming more efficient or selling new technology and industrial techniques. If education and industry is allowed to become developed enough it is entirely possible for a periphery country to rise to core country status and become a leader in the global market. Another way in which periphery countries better their education system is by spending money to send university level students and staff abroad to places such as the U.S. and Europe to receive better education.
Once the people in these countries have become educated enough and they realize their place in the world economy, they can also demand help from the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
. Although unlikely, due to the fact that the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
rely on the exploitation of the periphery, there have been pushes for core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
to help better the periphery countries. Some of the ideas suggested are to help aid the periphery countries in developing by exploiting them less, help the periphery countries lose some of their debt and raise the prices on goods coming from these countries to allow them to be more profitable. These policies are obviously not beneficial to the core countries
Core countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
and is mostly why they have never been adapted successfully but this is another way in which the periphery could rise to a higher status.
Russia
During the early 20th century the economy of the Russian Empire was a backward, primarily agrarian country with isolated pockets of heavy industries. The Empire fell in 1917; the core of its industrial workers shrank from 3.6 million in 1917 to 1.5 million in 1920. After the end of the Russian Civil WarRussian Civil War
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
the Soviet Union was industrialized under the rule of Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
. Industrialization peaked in 1929-1932 in a rapid campaign
First Five-Year Plan
The First Five-Year Plan, or 1st Five-Year Plan, of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a list of economic goals that was designed to strengthen the country's economy between 1928 and 1932, making the nation both militarily and industrially self-sufficient. "We are fifty or a hundred...
described as "a revolution from above". Former personal private farms were collectivized in the early 1930s and gradually supplied with tractors and other machinery. Mechanization of farm labor, among other factors, contributed to freeing up workers for the newly built factories. In 1928-1932 alone at least ten million peasants migrated to the cities, causing "an unprecedented demographic upheaval". Industrialization allowed the country to trade in the global trade market. By the 1950s and 60s, only about 30 years after it began to industrialize, the Soviet Union was considered by most scholars a core country along with the United States.
Adaptation
Once a periphery country does rise up to semi-periphery or core statusCore countries
In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
it will be more dependent on other periphery countries for natural resources
Natural Resources
Natural Resources is a soul album released by Motown girl group Martha Reeves and the Vandellas in 1970 on the Gordy label. The album is significant for the Vietnam War ballad "I Should Be Proud" and the slow jam, "Love Guess Who"...
. They may also start to exploit other periphery countries to continue to better themselves. One of the biggest impacts of this rise of status is the effects it has on the people of these countries. Health care
Health care
Health care is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, chiropractic, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers...
is one of the first major improvements these countries will see, people will no longer die in mass from diseases such as malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
and will be better treated for non-communicable diseases.
Education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
is also another way in which the citizens will benefit. As a country
Country
A country is a region legally identified as a distinct entity in political geography. A country may be an independent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state, as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region associated with a previously...
becomes richer, it is able to build more schools and better fund the schools already built. This was seen in Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
after the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
. A better educated public leads to a more efficient workforce
Workforce
The workforce is the labour pool in employment. It is generally used to describe those working for a single company or industry, but can also apply to a geographic region like a city, country, state, etc. The term generally excludes the employers or management, and implies those involved in...
, and can also lead the country to technological breakthroughs in industry
Industry
Industry refers to the production of an economic good or service within an economy.-Industrial sectors:There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction,...
and manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale...
. These countries will also experience much less severe famine now that they are able to trade successfully on a global
World
World is a common name for the whole of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth....
scale.
List of current periphery countries
Periphery countries as listed in the appendix of "Trade Globalization since 1795: waves of integration in the world-system" that appeared in the American Sociological ReviewAmerican Sociological Review
The American Sociological Review is a bimonthly, peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of sociology, including new theoretical developments, results of research that advance the understanding of fundamental social processes, and methodological innovations. It is published by SAGE...
(Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000)).
And this is the periphery listing according to Babones and Alvarez-Rivadulla (2007), who note that this list is composed of countries that "have been consistently classified into a single one of the three zones [core, semi-periphery or periphery] of the world economy over the entire 28-year study period".
See also
- Core-peripheryCore-peripheryCore-periphery theory is based on the notion that as one region or state expands in economic prosperity, it must engulf regions nearby to ensure ongoing economic and political success. The area of high growth or former high growth becomes known as the core, and the neighboring area is the periphery...
- Dependency theoryDependency theoryDependency theory or dependencia theory is a body of social science theories predicated on the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former...
- Developing countryDeveloping countryA developing country, also known as a less-developed country, is a nation with a low level of material well-being. Since no single definition of the term developing country is recognized internationally, the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries...
- Third WorldThird WorldThe term Third World arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either capitalism and NATO , or communism and the Soviet Union...
- Core countriesCore countriesIn World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and...
- Semi-periphery countriesSemi-periphery countriesIn world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries...