Lazar Gulkowitsch
Encyclopedia
Lazar Gulkowitsch was an eminent Jewish Studies
scholar.
province), Belarus
as the son of a merchant, he attended school in Baranavichy and then the famous Mir Yeshiva
. During World War I
, the family fled to Nikolayev (Ukraine
), where Gulkowitsch graduated from high school.
In 1918-1919, Gulkowitsch went to Virbālis
in Lithuania
, where he headed a Hebrew-speaking basic school and was part of the Rabbi
nate. He then took up studying Medicine
at the University of Königsberg
, Germany
(now Kaliningrad
, Russia
), but also attended classes in Philosophy
and Theology
, especially Old Testament
. In 1922, he received both an Ph.D.
and an M.A.
, the former with a work on the Kabbalah
, and in 1924, and M.D.
, with a specialization in ophthalmology
. In Königsberg, Gulkowitsch married Frieda Rabinowitz (27 February 1900 – Fall 1941); the couple would have two daughters.
Immediately after handing in his medical dissertation, however, Gulkowitsch had been invited by the University of Leipzig
to take over the lecturership in Hebrew
, Aramaic
, and Talmud
ic Sciences from the renowned and recently deceased Israel Issar Kahan. Leipzig in Saxony
was then the "mecca" of Oriental Studies in Germany, a very large and very highly regarded university (probably the best outside of Prussia
). Gulkowitsch also became director of the Institute of Late Jewish Studies within the Old Testament
division of the Divinity School
. With his appointment, Gulkowitsch automatically became a German citizen.
At Leipzig, Gulkowitsch not only taught but continued studying there, with the eminent scholars available (especially in Islamic Studies, Near Eastern Studies, Ethiopian Studies, and Assyriology, as well as Philosophy with the eminent Theodor Litt) towards his Habilitation
, which he attained in 1927. Continuing at Leipzig as Privatdozent
(unsalaried senior lecturer who may be called to a professorship), he became, in 1932, Professor extraordinary (full professor without a chair) of Late Jewish Studies within the Faculty of Philosophy, the only such position within a German university. However, already a year later, in 1933, due to the Nazis’ rise to power and the Nuremberg race laws (which were, i.a., directed against Jews as civil servants, which in Germany professors are), he was dismissed from the University of Leipzig
.
In the same year, however, the University of Tartu
in Estonia
, which had a very distinguished tradition of Oriental Studies and Hebrew, had opened, pushed by the local scholars and supported, i.a., by Albert Einstein
- a new Institute of Jewish Studies – a remarkable and defiant feat for 1933, even for an independent country like Estonia proud of its minority
rights laws. Gulkowitsch received the appointment as Professor and Chair of Jewish Studies and started teaching in Tartu in 1934. He attracted many high-calibre graduate students (mostly Jewish) and established an international publication series on Jewish Studies. Gulkowitsch taught in German
; the Tartu institute was probably the only place in the world where scholarship on Jewish issues in German was possible to be upheld during times of the Holocaust. During his Tartu tenure, Gulkowitsch travelled as much abroad as was possible during that time, especially to Sweden
(Uppsala University
) and Britain (University of Cambridge
).
When the Soviet Union
invaded and annexed Estonia for the first time in 1940, anti-semitic pogroms started right away and many Jews were deported to Siberia
. Gulkowitsch’s chair was abolished in 1941 and he himself dismissed. When the Nazis invaded Estonia in the same year, Gulkowitsch and, perhaps some weeks later, his entire family were – like almost 1,000 Estonian Jews that had not been deported and remained there – murdered by the Nazis.
was philological
, i.e. he approached his studies from the perspective of a critical reading of the relevant texts; the scholarly tradition in which he stood ist that of the history of religion school whose representatives include, e.g., Adolf von Harnack
, and which was the dominant school in Leipzig. This school is informed by a – by its own understanding – critical, rational
, and objective
, i.e., scientific, approach to religion; it consciously tries to overcome irrational and especially mystical elements of and approaches to religion. In doing so, Gulkowitsch’s main areas of research covered the fields of
The irrational-mystic approach to the study of religion also has its proponents (one could mention the tradition of Rudolf Otto
and his classic The Holy (1917) here), but in the Comparative Religion field, Gulkowitsch’s approach, if somehow modified, could today be considered mainstream. This is less so within Jewish Studies (and the study of that discipline), partially for historical reasons, because the rationalism of Gulkowitsch’s style seemed to some unduly accommodationist to non-Jewish principles and systems of thought and too critical of its mystic traditions (it will be noted that Gulkowitsch indeed demystifies the Kabbala and the Talmud and is very critical of Chassidism). Thus, Jewish Studies scholars like Gerschom Sholem have criticized, and continue to criticize, Gulkowitsch’s work.
Because many of Gulkowitsch’s writings after 1933 were published in German in Estonia
, they were actually not very well distributed and did not become part of the scholarly discourse of Jewish Studies, although they are of an extremely high quality and put Gulkowitsch clearly at the forefront of his area. Recent efforts to republish his most significant works with Germany
’s leading publisher of Judaica, Mohr Siebeck in Tübingen
, failed in 2005, after agreement with the press had already been reached, due to unknown reasons on the publishers' side.
Jewish studies
Jewish studies is an academic discipline centered on the study of Jews and Judaism. Jewish studies is interdisciplinary and combines aspects of history , religious studies, archeology, sociology, languages , political science, area studies, women's studies, and ethnic studies...
scholar.
Life
Born in Zirin (MinskMinsk
- Ecological situation :The ecological situation is monitored by Republican Center of Radioactive and Environmental Control .During 2003–2008 the overall weight of contaminants increased from 186,000 to 247,400 tons. The change of gas as industrial fuel to mazut for financial reasons has worsened...
province), Belarus
Belarus
Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel ,...
as the son of a merchant, he attended school in Baranavichy and then the famous Mir Yeshiva
Mir yeshiva (Poland)
The Mir yeshiva , commonly known as the Mirrer Yeshiva or The Mir, was a Haredi yeshiva located in the town of Mir, Russian Empire...
. During World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the family fled to Nikolayev (Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
), where Gulkowitsch graduated from high school.
In 1918-1919, Gulkowitsch went to Virbālis
Virbalis
Virbalis is a city in the Vilkaviškis district municipality, Lithuania. It is located west of Vilkaviškis.As German Wirballen, Polish Wierzbołów, or Russian Verzhbolovo , it is frequently mentioned in historical as well in modern literature...
in Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
, where he headed a Hebrew-speaking basic school and was part of the Rabbi
Rabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
nate. He then took up studying Medicine
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
at the University of Königsberg
University of Königsberg
The University of Königsberg was the university of Königsberg in East Prussia. It was founded in 1544 as second Protestant academy by Duke Albert of Prussia, and was commonly known as the Albertina....
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
(now Kaliningrad
Kaliningrad
Kaliningrad is a seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
), but also attended classes in Philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
and Theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, especially Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
. In 1922, he received both an Ph.D.
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
and an M.A.
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
, the former with a work on the Kabbalah
Kabbalah
Kabbalah/Kabala is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the esoteric aspect of Rabbinic Judaism. It was systematized in 11th-13th century Hachmei Provence and Spain, and again after the Expulsion from Spain, in 16th century Ottoman Palestine...
, and in 1924, and M.D.
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
, with a specialization in ophthalmology
Ophthalmology
Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the eye. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in medical and surgical eye problems...
. In Königsberg, Gulkowitsch married Frieda Rabinowitz (27 February 1900 – Fall 1941); the couple would have two daughters.
Immediately after handing in his medical dissertation, however, Gulkowitsch had been invited by the University of Leipzig
University of Leipzig
The University of Leipzig , located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities in the world and the second-oldest university in Germany...
to take over the lecturership in Hebrew
Hebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
, Aramaic
Aramaic language
Aramaic is a group of languages belonging to the Afroasiatic language phylum. The name of the language is based on the name of Aram, an ancient region in central Syria. Within this family, Aramaic belongs to the Semitic family, and more specifically, is a part of the Northwest Semitic subfamily,...
, and Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ic Sciences from the renowned and recently deceased Israel Issar Kahan. Leipzig in Saxony
Saxony
The Free State of Saxony is a landlocked state of Germany, contingent with Brandenburg, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia, Bavaria, the Czech Republic and Poland. It is the tenth-largest German state in area, with of Germany's sixteen states....
was then the "mecca" of Oriental Studies in Germany, a very large and very highly regarded university (probably the best outside of Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
). Gulkowitsch also became director of the Institute of Late Jewish Studies within the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
division of the Divinity School
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
. With his appointment, Gulkowitsch automatically became a German citizen.
At Leipzig, Gulkowitsch not only taught but continued studying there, with the eminent scholars available (especially in Islamic Studies, Near Eastern Studies, Ethiopian Studies, and Assyriology, as well as Philosophy with the eminent Theodor Litt) towards his Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
, which he attained in 1927. Continuing at Leipzig as Privatdozent
Privatdozent
Privatdozent or Private lecturer is a title conferred in some European university systems, especially in German-speaking countries, for someone who pursues an academic career and holds all formal qualifications to become a tenured university professor...
(unsalaried senior lecturer who may be called to a professorship), he became, in 1932, Professor extraordinary (full professor without a chair) of Late Jewish Studies within the Faculty of Philosophy, the only such position within a German university. However, already a year later, in 1933, due to the Nazis’ rise to power and the Nuremberg race laws (which were, i.a., directed against Jews as civil servants, which in Germany professors are), he was dismissed from the University of Leipzig
University of Leipzig
The University of Leipzig , located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities in the world and the second-oldest university in Germany...
.
In the same year, however, the University of Tartu
University of Tartu
The University of Tartu is a classical university in the city of Tartu, Estonia. University of Tartu is the national university of Estonia; it is the biggest and highest-ranked university in Estonia...
in Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
, which had a very distinguished tradition of Oriental Studies and Hebrew, had opened, pushed by the local scholars and supported, i.a., by Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics and one of the most prolific intellects in human history...
- a new Institute of Jewish Studies – a remarkable and defiant feat for 1933, even for an independent country like Estonia proud of its minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
rights laws. Gulkowitsch received the appointment as Professor and Chair of Jewish Studies and started teaching in Tartu in 1934. He attracted many high-calibre graduate students (mostly Jewish) and established an international publication series on Jewish Studies. Gulkowitsch taught in German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
; the Tartu institute was probably the only place in the world where scholarship on Jewish issues in German was possible to be upheld during times of the Holocaust. During his Tartu tenure, Gulkowitsch travelled as much abroad as was possible during that time, especially to Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
(Uppsala University
Uppsala University
Uppsala University is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Scandinavia, founded in 1477. It consistently ranks among the best universities in Northern Europe in international rankings and is generally considered one of the most prestigious institutions of...
) and Britain (University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
).
When the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
invaded and annexed Estonia for the first time in 1940, anti-semitic pogroms started right away and many Jews were deported to Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
. Gulkowitsch’s chair was abolished in 1941 and he himself dismissed. When the Nazis invaded Estonia in the same year, Gulkowitsch and, perhaps some weeks later, his entire family were – like almost 1,000 Estonian Jews that had not been deported and remained there – murdered by the Nazis.
Work
Gulkowitsch’s methodologyMethodology
Methodology is generally a guideline for solving a problem, with specificcomponents such as phases, tasks, methods, techniques and tools . It can be defined also as follows:...
was philological
Philology
Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Classical philology is the philology of Greek and Classical Latin...
, i.e. he approached his studies from the perspective of a critical reading of the relevant texts; the scholarly tradition in which he stood ist that of the history of religion school whose representatives include, e.g., Adolf von Harnack
Adolf von Harnack
Adolf von Harnack , was a German theologian and prominent church historian.He produced many religious publications from 1873-1912....
, and which was the dominant school in Leipzig. This school is informed by a – by its own understanding – critical, rational
Rationalism
In epistemology and in its modern sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification" . In more technical terms, it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive"...
, and objective
Objectivity (science)
Objectivity in science is a value that informs how science is practiced and how scientific truths are created. It is the idea that scientists, in attempting to uncover truths about the natural world, must aspire to eliminate personal biases, a priori commitments, emotional involvement, etc...
, i.e., scientific, approach to religion; it consciously tries to overcome irrational and especially mystical elements of and approaches to religion. In doing so, Gulkowitsch’s main areas of research covered the fields of
- ChassidismHasidic JudaismHasidic Judaism or Hasidism, from the Hebrew —Ḥasidut in Sephardi, Chasidus in Ashkenazi, meaning "piety" , is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalisation of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspects of the Jewish faith...
(towards which he was critical as an irrational and mystic phenomenon) - the KabbalahKabbalahKabbalah/Kabala is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the esoteric aspect of Rabbinic Judaism. It was systematized in 11th-13th century Hachmei Provence and Spain, and again after the Expulsion from Spain, in 16th century Ottoman Palestine...
(as a rational system) - linguistic history of HebrewHebrew languageHebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
and methodology of philological approaches generally - translations and editions of TalmudTalmudThe Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ic tracts - MaimonidesMaimonidesMoses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
and Spinoza
The irrational-mystic approach to the study of religion also has its proponents (one could mention the tradition of Rudolf Otto
Rudolf Otto
Rudolf Otto was an eminent German Lutheran theologian and scholar of comparative religion.-Life:Born in Peine near Hanover, Otto attended the Gymnasium Andreanum in Hildesheim and studied at the universities of Erlangen and Göttingen, where he wrote his dissertation on Martin Luther's...
and his classic The Holy (1917) here), but in the Comparative Religion field, Gulkowitsch’s approach, if somehow modified, could today be considered mainstream. This is less so within Jewish Studies (and the study of that discipline), partially for historical reasons, because the rationalism of Gulkowitsch’s style seemed to some unduly accommodationist to non-Jewish principles and systems of thought and too critical of its mystic traditions (it will be noted that Gulkowitsch indeed demystifies the Kabbala and the Talmud and is very critical of Chassidism). Thus, Jewish Studies scholars like Gerschom Sholem have criticized, and continue to criticize, Gulkowitsch’s work.
Because many of Gulkowitsch’s writings after 1933 were published in German in Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
, they were actually not very well distributed and did not become part of the scholarly discourse of Jewish Studies, although they are of an extremely high quality and put Gulkowitsch clearly at the forefront of his area. Recent efforts to republish his most significant works with Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
’s leading publisher of Judaica, Mohr Siebeck in Tübingen
Tübingen
Tübingen is a traditional university town in central Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated south of the state capital, Stuttgart, on a ridge between the Neckar and Ammer rivers.-Geography:...
, failed in 2005, after agreement with the press had already been reached, due to unknown reasons on the publishers' side.