Iran-China relations
Encyclopedia
Sino-Persian relations or Sino-Iranian relations, refers to the historic diplomatic, cultural and economic relations between the cultures of China proper
and Greater Iran
, dating back to ancient times. The ancient Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran
and Central Asia
) had various contacts with the Han
and Tang Dynasty
empires occupying is now the People's Republic of China
. The two lands were further connected via the Silk Road
.
The Chinese explorer Zhang Qian
, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria
and Sogdiana
in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan
(in Ferghana) and Daxia
(in Bactria
).
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members… In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).
The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC
: "When the Han
envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom… When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them… The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).
Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
from Central Asia to China. An Shih Kao
, a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist
missionary, went to the Chinese capital Luoyang
in 148
CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese
.
Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire maintained active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently travelled to China. Chinese documents record thirteen Sassanid embassies to China. Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade.
When the Chinese state of Shu Han
fell in 263 CE to the Chinese state of Cao Wei
, some of its refugees such as nobles and troops fled west to Sasanian Persia.
According to one account, a noble called Mamgo (see Mamikonian
) in Persia, was a Shu Han prince who retreated with his military forces and escaped to Persia. After Sima Yan, who was sent by the Emperor of China to Persia demanded that Persia hand over the Prince or face war, the Sassanian Persian Emperor Shapur I
appointed Mamgo as satrap of Armenia after exiling him there with his army, wanting to keep between Persia and China the solid and friendly diplomatic links they had, then claimed Mamgo's exile in Armenia constituted "certain death" in "the ends of the earth", which the Emperor of China accepted. Edward Gibbon
in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
, suggested a different account, saying that Mamgo was a Scythian who was considered a Chinese subject since the Chinese Empire's rule stretched all the way to Sogdiana
, according to him.
On various occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road
, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.
During the Liang Dynasty
in China, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu (Book of Liang).
There are record of several joint Sassanid and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy. Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic
on states in Central Asia, we also see what looks like a collaboration between Chinese and Sassanid forces to repel the Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana
at the time of the Arab invasions.
Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Pirooz
, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.
Both Piroz and his son Narsieh
(Chinese neh-shie) were given high titles at the Chinese court.
At least in two occasions, last one possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Pirooz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne with mixed results, one possibly ending up in a short rule of Pirooz in Sistan
(Sakestan) from which we have a few remaining numismatic evidence. Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes. The sister of the Sassanian Prince Peroz II was one of the concubines to the Chinese Emperor, who allowed Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to settle in China. The Emperor of China at this time was Emperor Gaozong of Tang
.
, Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age
and its relations with China continued. In 751, the Abbasid
Caliphate
which ruled Persia was in dispute with the Tang Dynasty
of China for control of the Syr Darya
region during the Battle of Talas
. The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih, a Persian, while the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi
, a Goguryo Korean, alongside Li Siye
and Duan Xiushi
, both Chinese. After the Abbasids won the battle, relations improved and there were no more conflicts between China and the Arabs.
During the Tang Dynasty
, communities of Persian-speaking merchants, known as Bosi (波斯), formed in northwestern China's major trade centers.
Iranian girls were in demand as dancers in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty
, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. In the Tang dynasty
inns were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients. Dancers were sent as gifts, and whirl dances were often performed by Iranian girls. Some of these Iranian, central Asian, and Sogdian girls were known for having blue eyes
and blonde hair. Blue eyed Greek and Persian girls danced in bars and clubs in China during this period.
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907-960), there is an example of a Chinese emperor having a Persian woman as concubine.
The young Chinese Emperor Liu Chang
of the Southern Han
dynasty kept a harem
, including one Persian girl he nicknamed Mei Zhu, which means "beautiful pearl
" (媚珠). During the first year of his reign, he was not over sixteen years old when he had a taste for intercourse with Persian girls. Liu Chang was attracted to the Persian girl's dark brown skin color.
From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian
women were to be found in Guangzhou
(Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang
, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing mulitiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions". Multiple women originating from the Gulf
lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu). Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".
A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers, experts, and artisans were recruited by the Mongol
Yuan Dynasty
of China. Some of them, known as semu
("assorted officials") occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration. One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar
, who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui
lineages and that of Yunnan
's Panthay
Hui population. His most famous descendant was Zheng He
, who became the Ming dynasty
's most famous explorer.
Relations continued during the Ming Dynasty
.
The famous Maragheh observatory
in Maragheh
, Iran
, is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers
working there alongside Islamic astronomers
, and some Islamic astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China. Safavid Iranian art
was also partly influenced by Chinese art
to an extent. Shah Abbas
had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan. 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings, and hundreds of others produced metalwork, miniature paintings, calligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery.
Of the Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu
, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz
in Persia in 1376, married a Persian
or an Arab
girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou
. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.
and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 1949 and 1979 respectively.
China proper
China proper or Eighteen Provinces was a term used by Western writers on the Qing Dynasty to express a distinction between the core and frontier regions of China. There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history...
and Greater Iran
Greater Iran
Greater Iran refers to the regions that have significant Iranian cultural influence. It roughly corresponds to the territory on the Iranian plateau and its bordering plains, stretching from Iraq, the Caucasus, and Turkey in the west to the Indus River in the east...
, dating back to ancient times. The ancient Parthians and Sassanid empires (occupying much of present Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
) had various contacts with the Han
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
and Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
empires occupying is now the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
. The two lands were further connected via the Silk Road
Silk Road
The Silk Road or Silk Route refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa...
.
Relations during the Parthian era
Zhang Qian
Zhang Qian was an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the 2nd century BCE, during the time of the Han Dynasty...
, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria
Bactria
Bactria and also appears in the Zend Avesta as Bukhdi. It is the ancient name of a historical region located between south of the Amu Darya and west of the Indus River...
and Sogdiana
Sogdiana
Sogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian people and a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great . Sogdiana is "listed" as the second of the "good lands and countries" that Ahura Mazda created...
in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named "Ānxī" (Chinese: 安息), a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan
Dayuan
The Dayuan or Ta-Yuan were a people of Ferghana in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of Records of the Grand Historian and the Book of Han. It is mentioned in the accounts of the famous Chinese explorer Zhang Qian in 130 BCE and the numerous embassies that followed him into...
(in Ferghana) and Daxia
Daxia
Daxia, Ta-Hsia, or Ta-Hia is the name given in antiquity by the Han Chinese to the territory of Bactria....
(in Bactria
Bactria
Bactria and also appears in the Zend Avesta as Bukhdi. It is the ancient name of a historical region located between south of the Amu Darya and west of the Indus River...
).
- "Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great YuezhiYuezhiThe Yuezhi, or Rouzhi , also known as the Da Yuezhi or Da Rouzhi , were an ancient Central Asian people....
(in Transoxonia). The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of DayuanDayuanThe Dayuan or Ta-Yuan were a people of Ferghana in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of Records of the Grand Historian and the Book of Han. It is mentioned in the accounts of the famous Chinese explorer Zhang Qian in 130 BCE and the numerous embassies that followed him into...
(Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (HyrcaniaHyrcaniaHyrcania was the name of a satrapy located in the territories of present day Gilan, Golestan, Mazandaran and part of Turkmenistan, lands south of the Caspian Sea. To the Greeks, the Caspian Sea was the "Hyrcanian Sea".-Etymology:...
)." (Shiji, 123123Year 123 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Paetinus and Apronianus...
, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China, Central Asia, and Parthia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members… In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).
The Parthians were apparently very intent on maintaining good relations with China and also sent their own embassies, starting around 110 BC
110 BC
Year 110 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Rufus and Albinus...
: "When the Han
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom… When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them… The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).
Parthians also played a role in the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE.The first documented translation efforts by Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, possibly as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the...
from Central Asia to China. An Shih Kao
An Shih Kao
An Shigao was a prince of Parthia, nicknamed the "Parthian Marquis", who renounced his claim to the royal throne of Parthia in order to serve as a Buddhist missionary monk in China.The prefix An in An Shigao's name is an abbreviation of Anxi, the Chinese name given to the regions ruled by the...
, a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
missionary, went to the Chinese capital Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
in 148
148
Year 148 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Cornelius and Calpernius...
CE where he established temples and became the first man to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
.
Relations during the Sassanid era
When the Chinese state of Shu Han
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
fell in 263 CE to the Chinese state of Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
, some of its refugees such as nobles and troops fled west to Sasanian Persia.
According to one account, a noble called Mamgo (see Mamikonian
Mamikonian
Mamikonian, Mamikoneans, or Mamigonian was a noble family which dominated Armenian politics between the 4th and 8th century. They ruled the Armenian regions of Taron, Sasun, Bagrevand and others...
) in Persia, was a Shu Han prince who retreated with his military forces and escaped to Persia. After Sima Yan, who was sent by the Emperor of China to Persia demanded that Persia hand over the Prince or face war, the Sassanian Persian Emperor Shapur I
Shapur I
Shapur I or also known as Shapur I the Great was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. The dates of his reign are commonly given as 240/42 - 270/72, but it is likely that he also reigned as co-regent prior to his father's death in 242 .-Early years:Shapur was the son of Ardashir I...
appointed Mamgo as satrap of Armenia after exiling him there with his army, wanting to keep between Persia and China the solid and friendly diplomatic links they had, then claimed Mamgo's exile in Armenia constituted "certain death" in "the ends of the earth", which the Emperor of China accepted. Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon was an English historian and Member of Parliament...
in his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a non-fiction history book written by English historian Edward Gibbon and published in six volumes. Volume I was published in 1776, and went through six printings. Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, VI in 1788–89...
, suggested a different account, saying that Mamgo was a Scythian who was considered a Chinese subject since the Chinese Empire's rule stretched all the way to Sogdiana
Sogdiana
Sogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian people and a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great . Sogdiana is "listed" as the second of the "good lands and countries" that Ahura Mazda created...
, according to him.
On various occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Both empires benefited from trade along the Silk Road
Silk Road
The Silk Road or Silk Route refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa...
, and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits.
During the Liang Dynasty
Liang Dynasty
The Liang Dynasty , also known as the Southern Liang Dynasty , was the third of the Southern dynasties in China and was followed by the Chen Dynasty...
in China, in 547 a Persian embassy paid tribute to the Liang, amber was recorded as originating from Persia by the Liang Shu (Book of Liang).
There are record of several joint Sassanid and Chinese efforts against their common Hephtalite enemy. Following encroachments by the nomadic Turkic
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
on states in Central Asia, we also see what looks like a collaboration between Chinese and Sassanid forces to repel the Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh also note the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of Sogdiana
Sogdiana
Sogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian people and a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great . Sogdiana is "listed" as the second of the "good lands and countries" that Ahura Mazda created...
at the time of the Arab invasions.
Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Pirooz
Pirooz
Peroz III was son of Yazdgerd III, the last Sassanid king of Persia. After the death of his father at the hands of a Christian miller for his purse and jewellery, he retreated to territory under the control of Tang Dynasty China and served as a Tang general and the head of the Governorate of...
, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.
Both Piroz and his son Narsieh
Narsieh
Narsieh was a Persian-Chinese general stationed in the Tang military garrison. He was son of prince Peroz III and grandson of Yazdgerd III, the last Sassanid king of Persia....
(Chinese neh-shie) were given high titles at the Chinese court.
At least in two occasions, last one possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Pirooz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne with mixed results, one possibly ending up in a short rule of Pirooz in Sistan
Sistan
Sīstān is a border region in eastern Iran , southwestern Afghanistan and northern tip of Southwestern Pakistan .-Etymology:...
(Sakestan) from which we have a few remaining numismatic evidence. Narsieh later attained the position of commander of the Chinese imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes. The sister of the Sassanian Prince Peroz II was one of the concubines to the Chinese Emperor, who allowed Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to settle in China. The Emperor of China at this time was Emperor Gaozong of Tang
Emperor Gaozong of Tang
Emperor Gaozong of Tang , personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Tang Dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683...
.
Relations during the Islamic era
After the Islamic conquest of PersiaIslamic conquest of Persia
The Muslim conquest of Persia led to the end of the Sassanid Empire in 644, the fall of Sassanid dynasty in 651 and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia...
, Persia continued to flourish during the Islamic Golden Age
Islamic Golden Age
During the Islamic Golden Age philosophers, scientists and engineers of the Islamic world contributed enormously to technology and culture, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding their own inventions and innovations...
and its relations with China continued. In 751, the Abbasid
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
Caliphate
Caliphate
The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...
which ruled Persia was in dispute with the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
of China for control of the Syr Darya
Syr Darya
The Syr Darya , also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo, is a river in Central Asia, sometimes known as the Jaxartes or Yaxartes from its Ancient Greek name . The Greek name is derived from Old Persian, Yakhsha Arta , a reference to the color of the river's water...
region during the Battle of Talas
Battle of Talas
The Battle of Talas in 751 AD was an especially notable conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control not only of the Syr Darya region, but even more...
. The commander of the Abbasid army was Zayid ibn Salih, a Persian, while the commanders of the Tang army were Gao Xianzhi
Gao Xianzhi
Gao Xianzhi, or Ko Sōnji, was a Tang general of Korean descent. He was known as a great commander during his lifetime. He is most well known for taking part in multiple military expeditions to conquer the Xiyu region over the infamous Pamir Mountains, all the way to the Aral Sea and the Caspian...
, a Goguryo Korean, alongside Li Siye
Li Siye
Li Siye , formally Prince Zhongyong of Wuwei , was a general of the Chinese Tang Dynasty who fought in the Battle of Talas. He fought valiantly at the Battle of Talas after the defeat of the main forces commanded by Gao Xianzhi, and his efforts allowed Gao to escape from the pursuit that Abbasid...
and Duan Xiushi
Duan Xiushi
Duan Xiushi , courtesy name Chenggong , formally Prince Zhonglie of Zhangye , was a general of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. He was known for his strict military discipline...
, both Chinese. After the Abbasids won the battle, relations improved and there were no more conflicts between China and the Arabs.
During the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, communities of Persian-speaking merchants, known as Bosi (波斯), formed in northwestern China's major trade centers.
Iranian girls were in demand as dancers in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty
Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty was a powerful, but short-lived Imperial Chinese dynasty. Preceded by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it ended nearly four centuries of division between rival regimes. It was followed by the Tang Dynasty....
, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. In the Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
inns were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients. Dancers were sent as gifts, and whirl dances were often performed by Iranian girls. Some of these Iranian, central Asian, and Sogdian girls were known for having blue eyes
Blue eyes
Blue eyes may refer to:*Blue eye color*Blue-eyes or Pseudomugilidae, a family of fish*Blue Eyes , a hentai manga by Tohru Nishimaki*Blue Eyes White Dragon, a fictional monster from the Yu-Gi-Oh! universe...
and blonde hair. Blue eyed Greek and Persian girls danced in bars and clubs in China during this period.
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907-960), there is an example of a Chinese emperor having a Persian woman as concubine.
The young Chinese Emperor Liu Chang
Liu Chang
Liu Chang was the last King of the Kingdom of Southern Han during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in southern coastal China.-Life:...
of the Southern Han
Southern Han
Southern Han was a kingdom that existed during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period along China’s southern coast from 917 to 971. The Kingdom greatly expanded her capital city Hing Wong Fu , namely present-day Guangzhou...
dynasty kept a harem
Harem
Harem refers to the sphere of women in what is usually a polygynous household and their enclosed quarters which are forbidden to men...
, including one Persian girl he nicknamed Mei Zhu, which means "beautiful pearl
Pearl
A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is made up of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other...
" (媚珠). During the first year of his reign, he was not over sixteen years old when he had a taste for intercourse with Persian girls. Liu Chang was attracted to the Persian girl's dark brown skin color.
From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
women were to be found in Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
(Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang
Liu Chang
Liu Chang was the last King of the Kingdom of Southern Han during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in southern coastal China.-Life:...
, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing mulitiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions". Multiple women originating from the Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu). Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".
A large number of Central Asian and Persian soldiers, experts, and artisans were recruited by the Mongol
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
of China. Some of them, known as semu
Semu
Semu is the name of a caste established in China under the Yuan Dynasty. Contrary to popular belief, the term "Semu" did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" in contrast with black-eyed Mongol Yuan people...
("assorted officials") occupied important official posts in the Yuan state administration. One of the most famous settlers from Persia was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar
Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar
Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari was Yunnan's first provincial governor in history, appointed by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty....
, who is identified as an ancestor of many Chinese Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
lineages and that of Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
's Panthay
Panthay
Panthays form a group of Chinese Muslims in Burma. Some people refer to Panthays as the oldest group of Chinese Muslims in Burma. However, because of intermixing and cultural diffusion the Panthays are not as distinct a group as they once were.-Etymology:...
Hui population. His most famous descendant was Zheng He
Zheng He
Zheng He , also known as Ma Sanbao and Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin was a Hui-Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the Voyages of Zheng He or Voyages of Cheng Ho from...
, who became the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
's most famous explorer.
Relations continued during the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
.
The famous Maragheh observatory
Maragheh observatory
Maragheh observatory is an astronomical observatory which was established in 1259 CE by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, an Iranian scientist and astronomer...
in Maragheh
Maragheh
Maragheh also Romanized as Marāgheh and Marāghen) is a city in and the capital of Maragheh County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 146,405, in 38,891 families....
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, is also known to have had some Chinese astronomers
Chinese astronomy
Astronomy in China has a very long history, with historians considering that "they [the Chinese] were the most persistent and accurate observers of celestial phenomena anywhere in the world before the Arabs."...
working there alongside Islamic astronomers
Islamic astronomy
Islamic astronomy or Arabic astronomy comprises the astronomical developments made in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age , and mostly written in the Arabic language. These developments mostly took place in the Middle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, and North Africa, and...
, and some Islamic astronomical instruments were also being used by astronomers in China. Safavid Iranian art
Iranian art
Persian arts, or Iranian arts is one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stonemasonry.-The Persian rug:...
was also partly influenced by Chinese art
Chinese art
Chinese art is visual art that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers. Early so-called "stone age art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simple pottery and sculptures. This early period was followed by a series of art...
to an extent. Shah Abbas
Shah Abbas
Shah Abbas is the name of:* Abbas I of Persia , Shah of Iran, and the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty* Abbas II of Persia * Abbas III of Persia...
had hundreds of Chinese artisans in his capital Esfahan. 300 Chinese potters produced glazed tile buildings, and hundreds of others produced metalwork, miniature paintings, calligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery.
Of the Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu
Li Nu
Lin Nu was a Chinese scholar and merchant in the early Ming dynasty. He is the ancestor of the philosopher Li Zhi.His father was Lin Lu. In 1376 Lin Nu visited Ormuz in Persia, converted to Islam, and married either a Persian or an Arab girl and brought her back to Quanzhou in Fujian.-References:...
, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz
Ormus
The Kingdom of Ormus was a 10th to 17th century kingdom located within the Persian Gulf and extending as far as the Strait of Hormuz...
in Persia in 1376, married a Persian
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
or an Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou
Quanzhou
Quanzhou is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait...
. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.
People's Republic of China and Islamic Republic of Iran
Diplomatic links between China and Iran have been maintained into the 20th and 21st centuries with the formation of both the People's Republic of ChinaPeople's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 1949 and 1979 respectively.
See also
- Foreign relations of Imperial ChinaForeign relations of Imperial ChinaImperial China had a long tradition of foreign relations. From the Qin Dynasty until the Qing Dynasty, the Culture of China had an impact upon neighboring and distant countries, while gradually being transformed by outside influences as well....
- Foreign relations of the People's Republic of ChinaForeign relations of the People's Republic of ChinaThe foreign relations of the People's Republic of China guides the way in which it interacts with foreign nations. As a great power and emerging superpower, China's foreign policy and strategic thinking is highly influential. China officially states it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign...
- Foreign relations of IranForeign relations of IranForeign relations of Iran refers to inter-governmental relationships between Iran and other countries. Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the newly-born Islamic Republic, under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, dramatically reversed the pro-Western foreign policy of the last Shah of Iran,...
- Shanghai Cooperation OrganizationShanghai Cooperation OrganizationThe Shanghai Cooperation Organisation or SCO , is an intergovernmental mutual-security organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan...
- An Shihkao
- PiroozPiroozPeroz III was son of Yazdgerd III, the last Sassanid king of Persia. After the death of his father at the hands of a Christian miller for his purse and jewellery, he retreated to territory under the control of Tang Dynasty China and served as a Tang general and the head of the Governorate of...
Further reading
- John W. Garver. China And Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-imperial World. 2006. ISBN 0-295-98631-X
- "Persian language in XinjiangXinjiangXinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
" (زبان فارسی در سین کیانگ). Zamir Sa'dollah Zadeh (دکتر ضمیر سعدالله زاد ه). Nameh-i Iran (نامه ایران) V.1. Editor: Hamid Yazdan Parast (حمید یزدان پرست). ISBN 964-423-572-X Perry-Castañeda LibraryPerry-Castañeda LibraryThe Perry–Castañeda Library is the main central library of the University of Texas at Austin library system in Austin, Texas. PCL is located at 21st Street and Speedway in Austin, TX....
collection under DS 266 N336 2005. - John Keefer Douglas, Matthew B. Nelson, and Kevin Schwartz; "Fueling the Dragon's Flame: How China's Energy Demands Affect its Relationships in the Middle East." United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission, October 2006. http://www.uscc.gov/researchpapers/2006/China_ME_FINAL.pdf
- Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East", Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60–72. http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/08spring/zambelis.htm
Historical
- http://www.iranian.com/main/2010/aug/china-and-iran- Article by Nabil Rastani
- "Iran in Central Asia"
- The Sassanids in China
- For more on Iranian-Chinese relations in history see Encyclopædia IranicaEncyclopædia IranicaEncyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples from prehistory to modern times...
p. 424–460.
Modern
- REALITE-EU China's Relations with Iran
- "Iran's New Alliance With China Could Cost U.S. Leverage". By Robin Wright, Washington Post Staff Writer, Wednesday, November 17, 2004; Page A21 http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/11/17/83609.shtml http://www.iranmania.com/News/ArticleView/?NewsCode=23602&NewsKind=Current+Affairs
- Chinese Arms Transfers to Iran
- Photos of Jiang Zemin at Persepolis