Insecticide
Encyclopedia
An insecticide is a pesticide
used against insect
s. They include ovicides and larvicide
s used against the eggs
and larva
e of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture
, medicine
, industry
and the household
. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; and others are concentrated in the food chain.
The classification of insecticides is done in several different ways:
, was made by the Swiss Scientist Paul Müller
. For this discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1948. DDT was introduced on the market in 1944. With the rise of the modern chemical industry, it was possible to make chlorinated hydrocarbons. DDT works by opening the sodium channels in the nerve cells of the insect.
s, which bind to acetylcholinesterase and other cholinesterases. This results in disruption of nerve impulses, killing the insect or interfering with its ability to carry on normal functions. Organophosphate insecticides and chemical warfare nerve agents (such as sarin
, tabun
, soman
and VX
) work in the same way. Organophosphates have an accumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity.
insecticides have similar toxic mechanisms to organophosphates, but have a much shorter duration of action and are thus somewhat less toxic.
another class of pesticides, pyrethroid
pesticides, has been developed. These are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators, and are much less acutely toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests
.
(with a much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists. Broad-spectrum—systemic insecticides, they have a rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and soil
treatments—often as substitutes for organophosphates and carbamates. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal (aphids), disoriented movement, paralysis and death.
, a natural insecticide extracted from Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae
). They bind to calcium channels in cardiac and skeletal muscle, blocking nervous transmission. Apparently only one such insecticide is currently registered, Rynaxypyr, generic name chlorantraniliprole .
is a member of the latter class,used primarily to control caterpillars which are pests. The most successful insecticides in this class are the juvenoids (juvenile hormone
analogues). Of these, methoprene
is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats, and is approved by WHO for use in drinking water cisterns to combat malaria. Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including mosquitoes, several fly species, and fleas. Two very similar products, hydroprene and kinoprene are used for controlling species such as cockroaches and white flies. Methoprene
has been registered with the EPA since 1975, and there are virtually no reports of resistance. A more recent type of IGR is the ecdysone agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in forestry and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders.
, a bacterial disease of Lepidoptera
ns and some other insects. Toxins produced by different strains of this bacterium are used as a larvicide
against caterpillar
s, beetles, and mosquitoes. Toxins from Saccharopolyspora spinosa are isolated from fermentations and sold as Spinosad
. Because these toxins little effect on other organism
s, they are considered more environmentally friendly
than synthetic pesticides. The toxin from B. thuringiensis (Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering
. Other biological insecticides include products based on entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana
, Metarhizium anisopliae
), nematodes (e.g. Steinernema feltiae) and viruses (e.g. Cydia pomonella granulovirus).
, which prevent insects from eating, but do not kill them directly. The insect often remains nearby, where it dies of starvation. Since antifeedants are nontoxic, they would be ideal as insecticides in agriculture. Much agrochemical research is devoted to make them cheap enough for commercial use.
Sprayed insecticides may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.
was introduced as a safer alternative to the lead
and arsenic
compounds.
Some insecticides have been banned due to the fact that they are persistent toxins which have adverse effects on animals and/or humans. An oft-quoted case is that of DDT
, an example of a widely used (and maybe misused) pesticide, which was brought to public attention by Rachel Carson
's book, Silent Spring
. One of the better known impacts of DDT is to reduce the thickness of the egg shells on predatory birds. The shells sometimes become too thin to be viable, causing reductions in bird populations. This occurs with DDT and a number of related compounds due to the process of bioaccumulation
, wherein the chemical, due to its stability and fat solubility, accumulates in organisms' fatty tissues. Also, DDT may biomagnify
, which causes progressively higher concentrations in the body fat of animals farther up the food chain
. The near-worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT and related chemicals has allowed some of these birds, such as the peregrine falcon
, to recover in recent years. A number of the organochlorine pesticides have been banned from most uses worldwide, and globally they are controlled via the Stockholm Convention
on persistent organic pollutant
s. These include: aldrin
, chlordane
, DDT
, dieldrin
, endrin
, heptachlor
, mirex
and toxaphene
.
and may be a cause of pollinator decline
, the loss of bees that pollinate
plants, and colony collapse disorder
(CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive
or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators will mean a reduction in crop yields. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect foraging behavior of bees. However, research into the causes of CCD was inconclusive as of June 2007.
Organochlorides
Neonicotinoids
Pesticide
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
used against insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s. They include ovicides and larvicide
Larvicide
A larvicide is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes...
s used against the eggs
Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
and larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
, medicine
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
, industry
Industry
Industry refers to the production of an economic good or service within an economy.-Industrial sectors:There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction,...
and the household
Household
The household is "the basic residential unit in which economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried out"; [the household] "may or may not be synonymous with family"....
. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; and others are concentrated in the food chain.
The classification of insecticides is done in several different ways:
- Systemic insecticides are incorporated by treated plants. Insects ingest the insecticide while feeding on the plants.
- Contact insecticides are toxic to insects brought into direct contact. Efficacy is often related to the quality of pesticide applicationPesticide applicationPesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides, are delivered to their biological targets...
, with small droplets (such as aerosolAerosolTechnically, an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are clouds, and air pollution such as smog and smoke. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can...
s) often improving performance. - Natural insecticides, such as nicotineNicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves...
, pyrethrumPyrethrumPyrethrum refers to several Old World plants of the genus Chrysanthemum which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum is also the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of C. cinerariifolium and C...
and neemNeemAzadirachta indica is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native to India growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil...
extracts are made by plants as defenses against insects. Nicotine based insecticides are still being widely used in the US and Canada though they are barred in the EU. - Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are insecticidal substances produced by plants after genetic modificationGenetically modified organismA genetically modified organism or genetically engineered organism is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques, generally known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA molecules from different sources, which are combined into one...
. For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Baccilus thuringiensis biocidal protein is introduced into a crop plant's genetic material. Then, the plant manufactures the protein. Since the biocide is incorporated into the plant, additional applications at least of the same compound, are not required. - Inorganic insecticides are manufactured with metals and include arsenateArsenateThe arsenate ion is AsO43−.An arsenate is any compound that contains this ion. Arsenates are salts or esters of arsenic acid.The arsenic atom in arsenate has a valency of 5 and is also known as pentavalent arsenic or As[V]....
s, copperCopperCopper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
compounds and fluorineFluorineFluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F. It is the lightest element of the halogen column of the periodic table and has a single stable isotope, fluorine-19. At standard pressure and temperature, fluorine is a pale yellow gas composed of diatomic...
compounds, which are now seldom used, and sulfurSulfurSulfur or sulphur is the chemical element with atomic number 16. In the periodic table it is represented by the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow...
, which is commonly used. - Organic insecticides are synthetic chemicals which comprise the largest numbers of pesticides available for use today.
- Mode of actionMode of actionHistorically, pesticides have often been classified according to their chemical groups and this is useful for understanding the properties of a given compound. However, it is the Mode of Action group which possibly represents the most useful pesticide classification for biologists...
—how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest—is another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action is important in predicting whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals.
Organochlorides
The insecticidal properties of the best known representative of this class of insecticides, DDTDDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
, was made by the Swiss Scientist Paul Müller
Paul Müller
Paul Müller is the name of:*Paul Hermann Müller , Swiss chemist*Paul Müller , Swiss actor*Paul Müller , German biologist*Paul O. Müller, German physicist...
. For this discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1948. DDT was introduced on the market in 1944. With the rise of the modern chemical industry, it was possible to make chlorinated hydrocarbons. DDT works by opening the sodium channels in the nerve cells of the insect.
Organophosphates
The next large class developed was the organophosphateOrganophosphate
An organophosphate is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are probably the most pervasive organophosphorus compounds. Many of the most important biochemicals are organophosphates, including DNA and RNA as well as many cofactors that are essential for life...
s, which bind to acetylcholinesterase and other cholinesterases. This results in disruption of nerve impulses, killing the insect or interfering with its ability to carry on normal functions. Organophosphate insecticides and chemical warfare nerve agents (such as sarin
Sarin
Sarin, or GB, is an organophosphorus compound with the formula [2CHO]CH3PF. It is a colorless, odorless liquid, which is used as a chemical weapon. It has been classified as a weapon of mass destruction in UN Resolution 687...
, tabun
Tabun (nerve agent)
Tabun or GA is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a clear, colorless, and tasteless liquid with a faint fruity odor. It is classified as a nerve agent because it fatally interferes with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system...
, soman
Soman
Soman, or GD , is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a nerve agent, interfering with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system by inhibiting the cholinesterase enzyme. As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN...
and VX
VX (nerve agent)
VX, IUPAC name O-ethyl S-[2-ethyl] methylphosphonothioate, is an extremely toxic substance whose only application is in chemical warfare as a nerve agent. As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations in UN Resolution 687...
) work in the same way. Organophosphates have an accumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity.
Carbamates
CarbamateCarbamate
Carbamates are organic compounds derived from carbamic acid . A carbamate group, carbamate ester, and carbamic acids are functional groups that are inter-related structurally and often are interconverted chemically. Carbamate esters are also called urethanes.-Synthesis:Carbamic acids are derived...
insecticides have similar toxic mechanisms to organophosphates, but have a much shorter duration of action and are thus somewhat less toxic.
Pyrethroids
To mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound pyrethrumPyrethrum
Pyrethrum refers to several Old World plants of the genus Chrysanthemum which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum is also the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of C. cinerariifolium and C...
another class of pesticides, pyrethroid
Pyrethroid
A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins produced by the flowers of pyrethrums . Pyrethroids now constitute a major commercial household insecticides...
pesticides, has been developed. These are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators, and are much less acutely toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests
Pesticide application
Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides, are delivered to their biological targets...
.
Neonicotinoids
Neonicotinoids are synthetic analogues of the natural insecticide nicotineNicotine
Nicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves...
(with a much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists. Broad-spectrum—systemic insecticides, they have a rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
treatments—often as substitutes for organophosphates and carbamates. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal (aphids), disoriented movement, paralysis and death.
Ryanoids
Ryanoids are synthetic chemicals with the same mode of action as ryanodineRyanodine
Ryanodine is a poisonous alkaloid found in the South American plant Ryania speciosa . It was originally used as an insecticide....
, a natural insecticide extracted from Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae is a defunct family of flowering plants whose former members have been scattered to various other families, mostly to Achariaceae, Samydaceae, and Salicaceae. It was so vaguely defined that hardly anything seemed out of place there and it became a dumping ground for odd and anomalous...
). They bind to calcium channels in cardiac and skeletal muscle, blocking nervous transmission. Apparently only one such insecticide is currently registered, Rynaxypyr, generic name chlorantraniliprole .
Insect Growth Regulators
Insect growth regulators is a term coined to include insect hormone mimics and an earlier class of chemicals, the benzoylphenyl ureas, which inhibit chitin (exoskeleton) biosynthesis in insects. DiflubenzuronDiflubenzuron
Diflubenzuron is an insecticide of the benzamide class. It is used in forest management and on field crops to selectively control insect pests, particularly forest tent caterpillar moths, boll weevils, gypsy moths, and other types of moths. The mechanism of action of diflubenzuron involves...
is a member of the latter class,used primarily to control caterpillars which are pests. The most successful insecticides in this class are the juvenoids (juvenile hormone
Juvenile hormone
Juvenile hormones are a group of acyclic sesquiterpenoids that regulate many aspects of insect physiology. JHs regulate development, reproduction, diapause, and polyphenisms....
analogues). Of these, methoprene
Methoprene
Methoprene is a juvenile hormone analog which can be used as an insecticide that acts as a growth regulator. Methoprene is an amber-colored liquid with a faint fruity odor which is essentially nontoxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. It is used in drinking water cisterns to control mosquitoes...
is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats, and is approved by WHO for use in drinking water cisterns to combat malaria. Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including mosquitoes, several fly species, and fleas. Two very similar products, hydroprene and kinoprene are used for controlling species such as cockroaches and white flies. Methoprene
Methoprene
Methoprene is a juvenile hormone analog which can be used as an insecticide that acts as a growth regulator. Methoprene is an amber-colored liquid with a faint fruity odor which is essentially nontoxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. It is used in drinking water cisterns to control mosquitoes...
has been registered with the EPA since 1975, and there are virtually no reports of resistance. A more recent type of IGR is the ecdysone agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in forestry and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders.
Biological insecticides
Recent efforts to reduce broad spectrum toxins added to the environment have brought biological insecticides back into vogue. An example is the development and increase in use of Bacillus thuringiensisBacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a biological pesticide; alternatively, the Cry toxin may be extracted and used as a pesticide. B...
, a bacterial disease of Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera is a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies...
ns and some other insects. Toxins produced by different strains of this bacterium are used as a larvicide
Larvicide
A larvicide is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes...
against caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture...
s, beetles, and mosquitoes. Toxins from Saccharopolyspora spinosa are isolated from fermentations and sold as Spinosad
Spinosad
Spinosad is a new chemical class of insecticides that are registered by the United States Environmental Protection Agency to control a variety of insects...
. Because these toxins little effect on other organism
Organism
In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s, they are considered more environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly are terms used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment....
than synthetic pesticides. The toxin from B. thuringiensis (Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology. It involves the introduction of foreign DNA or synthetic genes into the organism of interest...
. Other biological insecticides include products based on entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana
Beauveria bassiana
Beauveria bassiana is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a parasite on various arthropod species, causing white muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is being used as a biological insecticide to control a number of pests such as...
, Metarhizium anisopliae
Metarhizium anisopliae
Metarhizium anisopliae, formerly known as Entomophthora anisopliae , is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and causes disease in various insects by acting as a parasite. Ilya I. Mechnikov named it after the insect species it was originally isolated from: the beetle...
), nematodes (e.g. Steinernema feltiae) and viruses (e.g. Cydia pomonella granulovirus).
Antifeedants
Many plants have evolved substances, like polygodialPolygodial
Polygodial is an active constituent of Dorrigo Pepper, Mountain Pepper, Horopito, Canelo, Paracress and Water-pepper.Chemically it is a drimane-type sesquiterpene dialdehyde of formula C15H22O2.It elicits a warm and pungent flavour....
, which prevent insects from eating, but do not kill them directly. The insect often remains nearby, where it dies of starvation. Since antifeedants are nontoxic, they would be ideal as insecticides in agriculture. Much agrochemical research is devoted to make them cheap enough for commercial use.
Effects on nontarget species
Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake insecticide granules on the ground for food and eat it.Sprayed insecticides may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.
DDT
One of the bigger drivers in the development of new insecticides has been the desire to replace toxic and irksome insecticides. DDTDDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
was introduced as a safer alternative to the lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
and arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
compounds.
Some insecticides have been banned due to the fact that they are persistent toxins which have adverse effects on animals and/or humans. An oft-quoted case is that of DDT
DDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
, an example of a widely used (and maybe misused) pesticide, which was brought to public attention by Rachel Carson
Rachel Carson
Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist and conservationist whose writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement....
's book, Silent Spring
Silent Spring
Silent Spring is a book written by Rachel Carson and published by Houghton Mifflin on 27 September 1962. The book is widely credited with helping launch the environmental movement....
. One of the better known impacts of DDT is to reduce the thickness of the egg shells on predatory birds. The shells sometimes become too thin to be viable, causing reductions in bird populations. This occurs with DDT and a number of related compounds due to the process of bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost...
, wherein the chemical, due to its stability and fat solubility, accumulates in organisms' fatty tissues. Also, DDT may biomagnify
Biomagnification
Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a substance that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:* Persistence...
, which causes progressively higher concentrations in the body fat of animals farther up the food chain
Food chain
A food web depicts feeding connections in an ecological community. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs...
. The near-worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT and related chemicals has allowed some of these birds, such as the peregrine falcon
Peregrine Falcon
The Peregrine Falcon , also known as the Peregrine, and historically as the Duck Hawk in North America, is a widespread bird of prey in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-gray back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache"...
, to recover in recent years. A number of the organochlorine pesticides have been banned from most uses worldwide, and globally they are controlled via the Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants .- History :...
on persistent organic pollutant
Persistent organic pollutant
thumb|right|275px|State parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsPersistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes...
s. These include: aldrin
Aldrin
Aldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1970s, when it was banned in most countries. It is a colourless solid. Before the ban, it was heavily used as a pesticide to treat seed and soil...
, chlordane
Chlordane
Chlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. This white solid was sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an insecticide for crops like corn and citrus and on lawns and domestic gardens.-Production and uses:...
, DDT
DDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
, dieldrin
Dieldrin
Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound...
, endrin
Endrin
Endrin is an organochloride that was primarily used as an insecticide. It is a colourless odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-white. It is also a rodenticide. This compound became infamous as persistent organic pollutant and for this reason is banned in many...
, heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly...
, mirex
Mirex
Mirex is a chlorinated hydrocarbon that was commercialized as an insecticide and later banned because of its impact on the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of cyclopentadiene. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of its chemical robustness and...
and toxaphene
Toxaphene
Toxaphene is an insecticide. It is a mixture of closely related substances whose use is now banned in most of the world due to concerns of toxicity.-Composition:...
.
Pollinator decline
Insecticides can kill beesPesticide toxicity to bees
Pesticides vary in their effects on bees. Contact pesticides are usually sprayed on plants and can kill bees when they crawl over sprayed surfaces of plants or other media...
and may be a cause of pollinator decline
Pollinator decline
The term pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide during the end of the twentieth century....
, the loss of bees that pollinate
Pollination
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in plants, thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction. Pollen grains transport the male gametes to where the female gamete are contained within the carpel; in gymnosperms the pollen is directly applied to the ovule itself...
plants, and colony collapse disorder
Colony Collapse Disorder
Colony collapse disorder is a phenomenon in which worker bees from a beehive or European honey bee colony abruptly disappear. While such disappearances have occurred throughout the history of apiculture, the term colony collapse disorder was first applied to a drastic rise in the number of...
(CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive
Beehive (beekeeping)
A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Natural beehives are naturally occurring structures occupied by honeybee colonies, while domesticated honeybees live in man-made beehives, often in an apiary. These man-made...
or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators will mean a reduction in crop yields. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect foraging behavior of bees. However, research into the causes of CCD was inconclusive as of June 2007.
OrganochloridesOrganochlorideAn organochloride, organochlorine, chlorocarbon, chlorinated hydrocarbon, or chlorinated solvent is an organic compound containing at least one covalently bonded chlorine atom. Their wide structural variety and divergent chemical properties lead to a broad range of applications...
- AldrinAldrinAldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1970s, when it was banned in most countries. It is a colourless solid. Before the ban, it was heavily used as a pesticide to treat seed and soil...
- ChlordaneChlordaneChlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. This white solid was sold in the U.S. until 1983 as an insecticide for crops like corn and citrus and on lawns and domestic gardens.-Production and uses:...
- Chlordecone
- DDTDDTDDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
- DieldrinDieldrinDieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound...
- EndosulfanEndosulfanEndosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being phased out globally. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor...
- EndrinEndrinEndrin is an organochloride that was primarily used as an insecticide. It is a colourless odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-white. It is also a rodenticide. This compound became infamous as persistent organic pollutant and for this reason is banned in many...
- HeptachlorHeptachlorHeptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly...
- HexachlorobenzeneHexachlorobenzeneHexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is a chlorocarbon with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt...
- LindaneLindaneLindane, also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, , gammaxene, Gammallin and erroneously known as benzene hexachloride , is an organochlorine chemical variant of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and...
(gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) - MethoxychlorMethoxychlorMethoxychlor is a synthetic organochlorine used as an insecticide.-Usage:Methoxychlor is used to protect crops, ornamentals, livestock, and pets against fleas, mosquitoes, cockroaches, and other insects...
- MirexMirexMirex is a chlorinated hydrocarbon that was commercialized as an insecticide and later banned because of its impact on the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of cyclopentadiene. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of its chemical robustness and...
- PentachlorophenolPentachlorophenolPentachlorophenol is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names...
- TDEDichlorodiphenyldichloroethaneDichlorodiphenyldichloroethane is an organochlorine insecticide that is slightly irritating to the skin. DDD is a metabolite of DDT. DDD is colorless and crystalline; it is closely related chemically and is similar in properties to DDT, but it is considered to be less toxic to animals than is DDT...
Organophosphates
- AcephateAcephateAcephate is an organophosphate foliar insecticide of moderate persistence with residual systemic activity of about 10-15 days at the recommended use rate. It is used primarily for control of aphids, including resistant species, in vegetables and in horticulture...
- Azinphos-methylAzinphos-methylAzinphos-methyl is a broad spectrum organophosphate insecticide manufactured by Bayer CropScience, Gowan Co., and Makhteshim Agan. Like other pesticides in this class, it owes its insecticidal properties to the fact that it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.-History and uses:Azinphos-methyl is...
- BensulideBensulideBensulide is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an herbicide....
- ChlorethoxyfosChlorethoxyfosChlorethoxyfos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide....
- ChlorpyrifosChlorpyrifosChlorpyrifos is a crystalline organophosphate insecticide that inhibits acetylcholinesterase and is used to control insect pests. It is known by many trade names...
- Chlorpyriphos-methyl
- DiazinonDiazinonDiazinon , a colorless to dark brown liquid, is a thiophosphoric acid ester developed in 1952 by Ciba-Geigy, a Swiss chemical company...
- DichlorvosDichlorvosDichlorvos or 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate is a highly volatile organophosphate, widely used as a insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored product from insects. It is effective against mushroom flies, aphids, spider mites, caterpillars, thrips, and...
(DDVP) - DicrotophosDicrotophosDicrotophos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. Some common brand names for dicrotophos include Bidrin, Carbicron, Diapadrin, Dicron and Ektafos....
- DimethoateDimethoateDimethoate is a widely used organophosphate insecticide used to kill insects on contact. It was patented and introduced in the 1950s by American Cyanamid. Like other organophosphates, dimethoate is an anticholinesterase which disables cholinesterase, an enzyme essential for central nervous system...
- DisulfotonDisulfotonDisulfoton is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide.- Toxicology and safety :The use of the substance has been restricted by the US government. Bayer, the manufacturer, is exiting the US market December 31, 2009....
- EthopropEthopropEthoprop is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide....
- FenamiphosFenamiphosFenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide....
- FenitrothionFenitrothionFenitrothion is a phosphorothioate insecticide....
- FenthionFenthionFenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition. Due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as moderately toxic compound in U.S. Environmental...
- Fosthiazate
- MalathionMalathionMalathion is an organophosphate parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to cholinesterase. Malathion is an insecticide of relatively low human toxicity, however one recent study has shown that children with higher levels of organophosphate pesticide metabolites in their urine are more likely...
- MethamidophosMethamidophosMethamidophos is an organophosphate insecticide.Crops grown with the use of methamidophos include some Latin American rice. Many nations use methamidophos on crops, including developed nations such as Spain, US, Japan, and Australia...
- MethidathionMethidathionMethidathion is an organophosphate insecticide.-External links:*...
- MevinphosMevinphosMevinphos is an organophosphate insecticide that acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to control insects in a wide range of crops. It is most commonly used for the control of chewing and sucking insects, as well as spider mites.-Manufacture:...
- MonocrotophosMonocrotophosMonocrotophos is an organophosphate insecticide. It is acutely toxic to birds and humans, and for that reason has been banned in the U.S. and many other countries...
- NaledNaledNaled is a species of a class of insecticides referred to as organophosphates....
- OmethoateOmethoateOmethoate is a systemic organophosphorous insecticide and acaricide available as a soluble concentrate. It is used to control insects and mites in horticulture and agriculture, as well as in the home garden....
- Oxydemeton-methyl
- ParathionParathionParathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion, is an organophosphate compound. It is a potent insecticide and acaricide. It was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target organisms, including humans. Its use is banned or restricted in many...
- Parathion-methyl
- PhoratePhoratePhorate is an organophosphate used as an insecticide and acaricide. At normal conditions, it is a pale yellow mobile liquid poorly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents. It is relatively stable and hydrolyses only at very acidic or basic conditions. It is very toxic both for...
- PhosalonePhosalonePhosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide.-External links:* *...
- PhosmetPhosmetPhosmet is a phthalimide-derived, non-systemic, organophosphate insecticide used on plants and animals. It is mainly used on apple trees for control of coddling moth, though it is also used on a wide range of fruit crops, ornamentals, and vines for the control of aphids, suckers, mites, and fruit...
- Phostebupirim
- PhoximPhoximPhoxim is an organophosphate insecticide that is produced by the Bayer corporation. It is an analogous dimethyl ester and an organothiophosphate acaricide. It is allowed for use in limited applications in the European Union. It is banned for use on crops in the European Union since 22 December...
- Pirimiphos-methylPirimiphos-methylPirimiphos-methyl is a phosphorothioate used as an insecticide. It was originally developed by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., now Syngenta, in 1967....
- Profenofos
- Terbufos
- Tetrachlorvinphos
- Tribufos
- Trichlorfon
Carbamates
- AldicarbAldicarbAldicarb is a carbamate insecticide which is the active substance in the pesticide Temik. It is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and leafminers, but is primarily used as a nematicide. Aldicarb is a cholinesterase inhibitor which prevents the breakdown of...
- BendiocarbBendiocarbBendiocarb is an acutely toxic carbamate insecticide used in public health and agriculture and is effective against a wide range of nuisance and disease vector insects...
- CarbofuranCarbofuranCarbofuran is one of the most toxic carbamate pesticides. It is marketed under the trade names Furadan, by FMC Corporation and Curater, among several others. It is used to control insects in a wide variety of field crops, including potatoes, corn and soybeans...
- CarbarylCarbarylCarbaryl is a chemical in the carbamate family used chiefly as an insecticide. It is a white crystalline solid commonly sold under the brand name Sevin, a trademark of the Bayer Company. Union Carbide discovered carbaryl and introduced it commercially in 1958...
- Dioxacarb
- Fenobucarb
- FenoxycarbFenoxycarbFenoxycarb is a carbamate insect growth regulator. It has a low toxicity for bees, birds, and humans, but is toxic to fish. The oral LD50 for rats is greater than 16,800 mg/kg....
- Isoprocarb
- MethomylMethomylMethomyl is a carbamate insecticide. It was introduced in 1966, but its use is restricted because of its high toxicity to humans. Its current primary use is on alfalfa for forage....
- 2-(1-Methylpropyl)phenyl methylcarbamate2-(1-Methylpropyl)phenyl methylcarbamateFenobucarb is a carbamate insecticide. A pale yellow or pale red liquid, insoluble in water; used as an agricultural insecticide on rice and cotton and moderately toxic for humans.-Synonyms:...
Pyrethroids
- AllethrinAllethrinThe allethrins are a pair of related synthetic compounds used in insecticides. They are synthetic pyrethroids, a synthetic form of a chemical found naturally in the chrysanthemum flower. They were first synthesized in the United States by Milton S. Schechter in 1949...
- BifenthrinBifenthrinBifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide that affects the nervous system of insects.It was discovered and developed by FMC Corporation. Products containing bifenthrin include Talstar, Maxxthor, Capture, Brigade, Bifenthrine, Ortho Home Defense Max, Bifen IT, Bifen L/P, and Scotts LawnPro Step...
- CyhalothrinCyhalothrinCyhalothrin is a pyrethroid insecticide, an ingredient in the Karate brand of pesticides sold by Syngenta.Cyhalothrin is a fluorinated pyrethrin analog.Lambda-cyhalothrin is a mixture of highly active isomers of cyhalothrin...
, Lambda-cyhalothrin - CypermethrinCypermethrinCypermethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily degraded on soil and plants but can be effective for weeks when...
- CyfluthrinCyfluthrinCyfluthrin is a synthetic pyrethroid derivative that is used as an insecticide in restricted use pesticide and common household pesticide. It is a complex organic compound, and the commercial product is sold as a mixture of isomers. Like most pyrethroids, it is highly toxic to fish, invertebrates,...
- DeltamethrinDeltamethrinDeltamethrin is a pyrethroid ester insecticide.-Usage:Deltamethrin products are among the most popular and widely used insecticides in the world and have become very popular with pest control operators and individuals in the United States in the past five years. This material is a member of one of...
- EtofenproxEtofenproxEtofenprox is a pyrethroid derivative which is used as an insecticide....
- FenvalerateFenvalerateFenvalerate is an insecticide. It is a mixture of four optical isomers which have different insecticidal activities. The 2-S alpha configuration is the most insecticidally active isomer. Fenvalerate consists of about 23% of this isomer....
- PermethrinPermethrinPermethrin is a common synthetic chemical, widely used as an insecticide, acaricide, and insect repellent. It belongs to the family of synthetic chemicals called pyrethroids and functions as a neurotoxin, affecting neuron membranes by prolonging sodium channel activation. It is not known to...
- PhenothrinPhenothrinPhenothrin, also called sumithrin, is a synthetic pyrethroid that kills adult fleas and ticks. It has also been used to kill head lice in humans...
- PrallethrinPrallethrinPrallethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide.-References:* * *...
- ResmethrinResmethrinResmethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide with many uses, including control of the adult mosquito population.The resmethrin molecule has four stereoisomers determined by cis-trans orientation around a carbon triangle and chirality. Technical resmethrin is a mixture of -, -, -, - isomers, typically in...
- TetramethrinTetramethrinTetramethrin is a potent synthetic insecticide in the pyrethroid family. It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 65-80 °C. The commercial product is a mixture of stereoisomers....
- TralomethrinTralomethrinTralomethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide.Tralomethrin has potent insecticidal properties; it kills by modifying the gating kinetics of the sodium channels in neurons, increasing the length of time the channel remains open after a stimulus, thereby depolarizing the neuron for a longer period of...
- TransfluthrinTransfluthrinTransfluthrin is a fast-acting pyrethroid insecticide with low persistency. It has the molecular formula C15H12Cl2F4O2.Transfluthrin can be used in the indoor environment against flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches. It is a relatively volatile substance and acts as a contact and inhalation agent....
NeonicotinoidsNeonicotinoidsNeonicotinoids are a class of insecticides which act on the central nervous system of insects with lower toxicity to mammals. Neonicotinoids are among the most widely used insecticides worldwide, but recently the uses of some members of this class have been restricted in some countries due to a...
- AcetamipridAcetamipridAcetamiprid is an organic compound with the chemical formula C10H11ClN4. It is an odorless neonicotinoid insecticide produced under the trade names Assail,, and Chipco by Aventis CropSciences. It is systemic and intended to control sucking insects on crops such as leafy vegetables, citrus fruits,...
- ClothianidinClothianidinClothianidin is an insecticide developed by Takeda Chemical Industries and Bayer AG. Similar to thiamethoxam and imidacloprid, it is a neonicotinoid. Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides which act on the central nervous system of insects with lower toxicity to mammals...
- ImidaclopridImidaclopridImidacloprid is a nicotine-based, systemic insecticide, which acts as a neurotoxin and belongs to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids. Although it is now off patent, the primary manufacturer of this chemical is Bayer CropScience,...
- NitenpyramNitenpyramNitenpyram is an insecticide used in agriculture and veterinary medicine to kill insect external parasites of livestock and pets.In veterinary medicine, it is used orally with dogs and cats to control fleas . After ingestion, it begins killing fleas within 30 minutes and kills every adult flea on...
- Nithiazine
- ThiaclopridThiaclopridThiacloprid is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. Its mechanism of action involves disruption of the insect's nervous system by inhibiting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Thiacloprid was developed by Bayer CropScience for use on agricultural crops to control of a variety of sucking and...
- ThiamethoxamThiamethoxamThiamethoxam is an insecticide in the class of neonicotinoids. It has a broad spectrum of activity against many types of insects.-History:Thiamethoxam was developed by Syngenta but a patent dispute arose with Bayer which already had patents covering other neonicotinoids including imidacloprid...
Insect Growth Regulators
- MethopreneMethopreneMethoprene is a juvenile hormone analog which can be used as an insecticide that acts as a growth regulator. Methoprene is an amber-colored liquid with a faint fruity odor which is essentially nontoxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. It is used in drinking water cisterns to control mosquitoes...
- Hydroprene
- DiflubenzuronDiflubenzuronDiflubenzuron is an insecticide of the benzamide class. It is used in forest management and on field crops to selectively control insect pests, particularly forest tent caterpillar moths, boll weevils, gypsy moths, and other types of moths. The mechanism of action of diflubenzuron involves...
- Tebufenozide
Plant derived
- AnabasineAnabasineAnabasine is a pyridine alkaloid found in the Tree Tobacco plant, a close relative of the common tobacco plant . Chemically, it is similar to nicotine...
- AnetholeAnetholeAnethole is a phenylpropene, a type of aromatic compound that occurs widely in nature, in essential oils...
(mosquito larvae) - AnnoninAnnoninAnnonin is an active ingredient present in extracts of seed kernels of the Annona seed used as an insecticide for Helicoverpa and other caterpillar pests....
- Asimina (pawpaw tree seeds) for lice
- AzadirachtinAzadirachtinAzadirachtin, a chemical compound belonging to the limonoid group, is a secondary metabolite present in neem seeds. It is a highly oxidized tetranortriterpenoid which boasts a plethora of oxygen functionality, comprising an enol ether, acetal, hemiacetal, and tetra-substituted oxirane as well as a...
- CaffeineCaffeineCaffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
- CarapaCarapaCarapa is a genus in the mahogany family Meliaceae. The c. 25 species become medium-sized to large trees to 30 m tall, occurring in tropical South America and Africa; common names for include Andiroba and Crabwood.-Species:...
- CinnamaldehydeCinnamaldehydeCinnamaldehyde is the organic compound that gives cinnamon its flavor and odor. This pale yellow viscous liquid occurs naturally in the bark of cinnamon trees and other species of the genus Cinnamomum...
(very effective for killing mosquito larvae) - CinnamonCinnamonCinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several trees from the genus Cinnamomum that is used in both sweet and savoury foods...
leaf oil (very effective for killing mosquito larvae) - Cinnamyl acetate (kills mosquito larvae)
- Citral
- DeguelinDeguelinDeguelin is a derivative of rotenone. Both are compounds classified as rotenoids of the flavonoid family and are naturally occurring insecticides...
- DerrisDerrisDerris is a climbing leguminous plant of Southeast Asia and the southwest Pacific islands, including New Guinea. Its roots contain rotenone, a strong insecticide and fish poison....
- DerrisDerrisDerris is a climbing leguminous plant of Southeast Asia and the southwest Pacific islands, including New Guinea. Its roots contain rotenone, a strong insecticide and fish poison....
(rotenoneRotenoneRotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant...
) - Desmodium caudatumDesmodium caudatumDesmodium caudatum is a deciduous nitrogen fixing plant in the Fabaceae family. It is found in India, China and other parts of Asia. The shrub grows to a height of about 1.5 m tall. The leaves and roots of the plant are used as an insecticide....
(leaves and roots) - EugenolEugenolEugenol is a phenylpropene, an allyl chain-substituted guaiacol. Eugenol is a member of the phenylpropanoids class of chemical compounds. It is a clear to pale yellow oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove oil, nutmeg, cinnamon, basil and bay leaf. It is slightly...
(mosquito larvae) - Linalool
- MyristicinMyristicinMyristicin is a phenylpropene, a natural organic compound present in small amounts in the essential oil of nutmeg and to a lesser extent in other spices such as parsley and dill.It is insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol and acetone.-Uses:...
- NeemNeemAzadirachta indica is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native to India growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil...
(AzadirachtinAzadirachtinAzadirachtin, a chemical compound belonging to the limonoid group, is a secondary metabolite present in neem seeds. It is a highly oxidized tetranortriterpenoid which boasts a plethora of oxygen functionality, comprising an enol ether, acetal, hemiacetal, and tetra-substituted oxirane as well as a...
) - Nicotiana rusticaNicotiana rusticaNicotiana rustica, known in South America as Mapacho and in Vietnam as Thuoc Lao , is a plant in the Solanaceae family. It is a very potent variety of tobacco. The high concentration of nicotine in its leaves makes it useful for creating organic pesticides.Rustica is also used for entheogenic...
(nicotineNicotineNicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves...
) - Peganum harmala, seeds (smoke from), root
- OreganoOreganoOregano – scientifically named Origanum vulgare by Carolus Linnaeus – is a common species of Origanum, a genus of the mint family . It is native to warm-temperate western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region.Oregano is a perennial herb, growing from 20–80 cm tall,...
oil kills beetles Rhizopertha dominica (bug found in stored cereal) - PolyketidePolyketidePolyketides are secondary metabolites from bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Polyketides are usually biosynthesized through the decarboxylative condensation of malonyl-CoA derived extender units in a similar process to fatty acid synthesis...
- PyrethrumPyrethrumPyrethrum refers to several Old World plants of the genus Chrysanthemum which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum is also the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of C. cinerariifolium and C...
- QuassiaQuassiaQuassia is a flora genus in the family Simaroubaceae. Its size is disputed; some botanists treat it as consisting of only one species, Quassia amara from tropical South America, while others treat it in a wide circumscription as a pantropical genus containing up to 40 species of trees and shrubs....
(South American plant genus) - RyanodineRyanodineRyanodine is a poisonous alkaloid found in the South American plant Ryania speciosa . It was originally used as an insecticide....
- TetranortriterpenoidTetranortriterpenoidThe tetranortriterpenoid class of chemical compounds most noted for the chemical azadirachtin, extracted from the neem tree that displays insecticidal properties...
- ThymolThymolThymol is a natural monoterpene phenol derivative of cymene, C10H14O, isomeric with carvacrol, found in oil of thyme, and extracted from Thymus vulgaris and various other kinds of plants as a white crystalline substance of a pleasant aromatic odor and strong antiseptic properties...
(controls varroa mites in bee colonies)
Biologicals
- Bacillus sphaericusBacillus sphaericusBacillus sphaericus is an obligate aerobe bacterium used as a larvicide for mosquito control. It forms spherical endospores.Bacillus sphericum is a gram positive bacteria, with rod shaped cells that form chains....
- Bacillus thuringiensisBacillus thuringiensisBacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a biological pesticide; alternatively, the Cry toxin may be extracted and used as a pesticide. B...
- Bacillus thuringiensis aizawi
- Bacillus thuringiensis israelensisBacillus thuringiensis israelensisBacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis is a group of bacteria used as biological control agents for larvae stages of certain Dipterans. Bti produces toxins which are effective in killing various species of mosquitoes, fungus gnats, and blackflies, while having almost no effect on other...
- Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki
- Bacillus thuringiensis tenebrionis
- Nuclear Polyhedrosis virusNuclear Polyhedrosis VirusThe nuclear polyhedrosis virus which belongs to the sub group Baculoviruses is a virus affecting insects, predominantly moths and butterflies. It has been used as a pesticide for crops infested by insects susceptible to contraction...
- GranulovirusCydia pomonella granulosis virusCydia pomonella granulosis virus is a Baculovirus Granulovirus. It has a double-stranded DNA genome 123500 bp in length with 143 ORFs. The virus forms small bodies called granules containing a single viron. CpGV is a virus of invertebrates – specifically Cydia pomonella or the Codling moth...
- Spinosyn A
- Spinosyn D
See also
- FoggerFoggerA fogger is any device that creates a fog, typically containing an insecticide for killing insects and other arthropods. Foggers are often used by consumers as a low cost alternative to professional pest control services. The number of foggers needed for pest control depends on the size of the...
- Index of pesticide articlesIndex of pesticide articlesThis is an index of articles relating to pesticides.-A:Abamectin- Acephate- Acetochlor- Acibenzolar- Acibenzolar-S-methyl- Acrylonitrile- Action level- Agent Blue- Agent Green- Agent Orange- Agent Pink- Agent Purple- Agent White- Agrochemical...
- Endangered arthropodEndangered arthropodAn endangered arthropod is defined here as any of a number of species within the phylum Arthropoda, whose extinction is likely in the foreseeable future . Estimating the number of arthropod endangered species is extremely difficult, primarily because a vast number of the species themselves are...
- Pesticide applicationPesticide applicationPesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides, are delivered to their biological targets...
Further reading
- McWilliams, James E., “‘The Horizon Opened Up Very Greatly’: Leland O. Howard and the Transition to Chemical Insecticides in the United States, 1894–1927,” Agricultural History, 82 (Fall 2008), 468–95.
External links
- InsectBuzz.com - Daily updated news on insects and their relatives, including information on insecticides and their alternatives
- International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)
- Pestworld.org – Official site of the National Pest Management Association
- Classification of insecticides
- Streaming online video about efforts to reduce insecticide use in rice in Bangladesh. on Windows Media Player, on Real Player
- How Insecticides Work – Has a thorough explanation on how insecticides work.
- University of California Integrated pest management program
- Using Insecticides, Michigan State University Extension
- Example of Insecticide application in the Tsubo-en Zen garden (Japanese dry rock garden) in Lelystad, The Netherlands.
- Home Insecticides Brands http://www.insectia.info at Insectia.info