Duiliu Zamfirescu
Encyclopedia
Duiliu Zamfirescu was a Romania
n novelist, poet, short story writer, lawyer, nationalist
politician, journalist, diplomat and memoirist. In 1909, he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy
, and, for a while in 1920, he was Foreign Minister of Romania. Zamfirescu is best remembered for his Comăneştenilor literary cycle
, comprising his novels Viaţa la ţară, Tănase Scatiu, În război, Îndreptări and Anna.
, Vrancea County
), he attended elementary school and gymnasium in Focşani
, and later studied at the Matei Basarab High School in Bucharest
(1873–1876), before entering the University of Bucharest
's Faculty of Law. He graduated in 1880.
Zamfirescu made his debut with a series of poems in Ghimpele review (1877), and, later in the same year, became an enthusiastic supporter of the Romanian war effort during the Independence War, an experience which placed its mark on his later works and choice of subjects. Three years later, he became associated with Alexandru Macedonski
's Literatorul, a circle of Symbolist
writers, publishing a Romantic
poem titled Levante şi Kalavryta ("Levante and Kalavryta"). At the time, his work was under the influence of Macedonski's Parnassianism.
In 1880, he was appointed public prosecutor in the Northern Dobruja
n town of Hârşova
, while being employed, until 1884, as literary columnist for România Liberă
. At the time, the editorial staff also included the writers Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea
, Alexandru Vlahuţă
, and D. D. Racoviţă-Sphinx. Zamfirescu contributed articles in which he declared his dislike for naturalism
, as well as distancing himself from the Realism
of his contemporaries Ion Luca Caragiale
and Ioan Slavici
(despite common perception, he claimed he had "nothing in common" with the latter two). At the time, he also contributed political articles under the pen name Don Padil.
In 1882, after briefly serving as a prosecutor
in Târgovişte
and resigning, Duiliu Zamfirescu moved back to Focşani, where he practiced law and was a French language
substitute teacher. Later in the same year, he settled in Bucharest and joined România Liberăs editorial staff, publishing his first volume of prose and poems, Fără titlu ("Untitled"), in 1883. Zamfirescu authored his debut novel, În faţa vieţii ("Facing Life") in 1884—the work was noted for the chapter "Pesimistul de la Soleni" ("The Pessimist
of Soleni"), a satire of the Russian
-born socialist
thinker Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
.
In 1885, he came out first in an examination for the office of legation
Attaché
, and was consequently employed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while at the same time teaching the Romanian language
at the Sf. Gheorghe High School. He also began associating with the Junimea
circle and began writing for its magazine, Convorbiri Literare, bringing his writings to the attention of Titu Maiorescu
, while becoming a regular in the literary circle formed around the restaurant Casa Capşa
. He was part of a small group of literary figures who oscillated between Literatorul and Maiorescu's circle—others to do so were Vasile Alecsandri
, Veronica Micle
and Matilda Cugler-Poni. The first of his poems to be published with Maiorescu's approval was titled Iarna ("Winter")—printed in June 1884. Zamfirescu is considered one of the most important writers to have been associated with Junimea during the final stage of its existence. He nonetheless maintained some distance to the society, and reportedly irritated Titu Maiorescu by collaborating with the newly-established anti-Junimist magazines Literatură şi Artă Română (edited by N. Petraşcu
, on whom Zamfirescu was to be an influence, and Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio).
Ultimately, in May 1885, Zamfirescu was dispatched to Italy
, as legation secretary in Rome
, a position which he filled until 1906, with a hiatus (1892–1894) during which he was assigned to Greece
and later Belgium
. He was a colleague of Dimitrie Ghyka, and remembered for welcoming the ethnic Romanian
Transylvania
n activist Badea Cârţan
during the latter's celebrated trip to the Italian capital (1896). Zamfirescu married an Italian woman, Henrietta Allievi, who died in 1920.
An enthusiastic admirer of Leo Tolstoy
's writings, he began work on a monograph
entirely dedicated to the latter (excerpts of which were first published in 1892 issues of Convorbiri Literare). With his 1894 volume of poetry Alte orizonturi ("Other Horizons"), Zamfirescu entered a prolific phase of his literary career: in 1894-1895, Convorbiri Literare serialized his novel Viaţa la ţară ("Life in the Country"), followed in 1895-1896 by Tănase Scatiu, and, in 1897-1898, În război ("At War"); in 1895, he also published his collected novella
s (Nuvele romane, "Roman Novellas"), followed by the poetry volumes Imnuri păgâne ("Pagan Hymns", 1897), and Poezii nouă ("New Poems", 1899).
His relations with Dobrogeanu-Gherea was tense, but, in 1890, Zamfirescu approved of the decision taken by the Theodor Rosetti
cabinet to award the Romanian citizenship to the philosopher (at a time when his Jewish ethnicity would have made it extremely hard to obtain). The same year, Dobrogeanu-Gherea published a study of Zamfirescu's works. The two opposed each other over economic ideas and Dobrogeanu-Gherea's application of Marxism
to the Romanian society—examining the works of Achille Loria
, Zamfirescu collected Marxist-inspired notions that, he believed, contradicted Dobrogeanu-Gherea from inside his own camp. When Maiorescu and the Romanian Marxists were engaged in a lengthy polemic, he added his own arguments in support of the former.
Between 1901 and 1902, his novel Îndreptări ("Betterments") was serialized by the magazine Literatură şi Artă Română, which was a sign of cooling relations between Zamfirescu and his mentor Maiorescu (nevertheless, Convorbiri Literare continued to publish Zamfirescu's novel Anna in 1906). He apparently sought to include in his work both major tendencies of 19th century Romanian literature
—"art for art's sake
" as preached by Maiorescu and the "tendentious art
" notably advocated by Dobrogeanu-Gherea. Around 1905, through the articles of Simion Mehedinţi
, his work came to be criticized by the traditionalist magazine Sămănătorul
, who coupled a rejection of modernism
with an appreciation of for folklore
.
In 1909, Zamfirescu was accepted to the Academy, and delivered a much-discussed speech on the influence of Poporanism
and traditionalism in literature, showing his disapproval for both currents. It stated:
Zamfirescu thus attacked the use of folklore for direct inspiration, which saw Maiorescu, among others, defending folk literature and its supporters. Maiorescu had by then ceased most contacts with his former protegé. There were also notable tensions between Zamfirescu and the Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga
, whose work was hailed as an example by both Maiorescu and Sămănătorul.
The same year, Zamfirescu was named a Minister Plenipotentiary and the Romanian Kingdom
's envoy to the Danube Commission
. His Furfanţo volume of short stories and his novel Lydda were both printed in 1911. He was relieved of his diplomatic post in 1913, at a time when Maiorescu became Premier of a Conservative Party cabinet—this came after a Romanian Army officer reported statements made by Zamfirescu, which he alleged were unpatriotic
. Reportedly, Maiorescu never gave Zamfirescu a chance to explain himself.
During World War I
, following the occupation of southern Romania
by the Central Powers
, Zamfirescu followed Romanian authorities in their Iaşi
refuge. By late 1918, he became a founding member of the People's Party, led by General Alexandru Averescu
, and edited the Iaşi-based voice of the movement, Îndreptarea. Under the second Averescu cabinet, Zamfirescu served as Foreign Minister in March–June 1920, and then as President of the Chamber of Deputies
.
His short term in office was noted for the establishment of Romanian relations with the Holy See
(see Roman Catholicism in Romania
). In 1919, Vladimir Ghika
had been appointed Romanian representative to the Papacy
by the National Romanian Council, an institution which campaigned for the recognition of Greater Romania
at the Paris Peace Conference
. When Ghika's term expired, he was replaced by Zamfirescu with Dimitrie Pennescu, who was Romania's first Ambassador to the Vatican. The Apostolic Nunciature
in Romania was set up as a result of this, and first held by Archbishop Francesco Marmaggi
.
Duiliu Zamfirescu's last published works were his poetry volume Pe Marea Neagră ("On the Black Sea
", 1919) and a collection of autobiographical pieces and short stories, O muză ("A Muse", 1920). In July 1921, he was involved in projects to crown King
Ferdinand I
as "King of Greater Romania". He died at Agapia
in 1922, and was buried in Focşani's southern cemetery.
, Duiliu Zamfirescu adopted some of Gane's themes (including his compassionate perspective on the decay of low-ranking boyar
s as a social class
) and, in part, his storytelling techniques. The writer was also known for the frequent comparisons he drew between his novels and those of Leo Tolstoy
. Most of his later works bear the imprint of Neoclassicism
.
The impact of Junimea
guidelines in his writings is a disputed subject. An opponent of both strict Realism
and rural traditionalism, Zamfirescu ridiculed the works of Junimist novelist Ioan Slavici
as "sentimental mawkishness". Such contradictions have literary historians such as Tudor Vianu
to leave him out of their essays on Junimism. It was also proposed that Zamfirescu associated with both Literatorul and Junimea
due to one of their very few common traits, which was political in nature: the two groups shared Zamfirescu's conservatism
and his interest in preserving a Romanian aristocracy
on the boyar model. Although his similarities with Junimea were extended after he adopted Neoclassical guidelines, Zamfirescu strongly disagreed with Maiorescu and his disciples on the issue of peasant themes and folklore in novels, arguing that the new literature was supposed to draw inspiration from the urban environment and the rural upper class
. In one instance, he is known to have referred to Junimeas theory on the peasant novel using the French
expression c'est bourgeois et plat ("it is bourgeois
and plain").
In many ways, however, Zamfirescu was a Realist, notably using the guidelines imposed by Junimea as a means to give an accurate portrayal of his characters' speech. Researcher Z. Ornea argued that the main disagreement between him and the literary society was over Maiorescu's view that the national values of Romania were mostly embodied by the peasants, with Zamfirescu arguing that these had also been preserved by the cultured groups of low-ranking boyars. As noted by Ornea, Zamfirescu's focus on the latter group and his nationalism
came to contrast with his aesthetic guidelines, and, paradoxically, led to virtually all of his novels having a rural background and displaying a strong sympathy for the peasantry.
Thus, Zamfirescu's positive characters lash out at boyars of foreign origins, to whom they refer as "Phanariotes
", and tolerate the unscrupulous Tănase Scatiu in their company only because he is from the countryside. In parallel, Scatiu is also disliked for being a Greek and a profiteering estate leaseholder
—indicative of Zamfirescu's own social and national views. Zamfirescu believed in a strong and natural connection between the landowners and their property, as well as between the landowners and their community—this theme was found with many conservatives of his day, including the Junimists Petre P. Carp
and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru
, and announced a similar theory constructed by historian Nicolae Iorga
. In his fictional world, peasants make brief appearances as secondary characters, noted for their deep respect for the traditional owners, as well as for their dislike of all change. In parallel, Zamfirescu introduced socialist
agitators as negative characters, and, in Lume nouă şi lume veche ("New World and Old World"), one of his less known novels, gave them the central stage as a means to satirize
them.
Duiliu Zamfirescu remained a maverick throughout his life, and his publicized outbursts against various trends has probably contributed to the decline in interests among his public and critics. Ornea described him as "immeasurably arrogant, petulant and a snob
", noting that these traits had led to "unjust" treatment of his work. During the interwar period
, Zamfirescu's views were defended by the modernist critic Eugen Lovinescu
, whose arguments were later rejected by his colleague George Călinescu
—the latter argued that Lovinescu had failed to prove Zamfirescu's aesthetic value. Criticism of Zamfirescu was especially acute after his 1909 speech, when both competing traditionalist currents, Poporanism
and Sămănătorul
, attacked his work in its entirety. However, according to Ornea, Zamfirescu's novels serve as a bridge between Junimea and 20th century traditionalism.
Critics have traditionally held a more favorable view of Zamfirescu's correspondence, which was only published after 1937. Offering a glimpse into his lengthy investigation of artistic styles and tenets, they have won acclaim for their refinement.
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
n novelist, poet, short story writer, lawyer, nationalist
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
politician, journalist, diplomat and memoirist. In 1909, he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy
Romanian Academy
The Romanian Academy is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 acting members who are elected for life....
, and, for a while in 1920, he was Foreign Minister of Romania. Zamfirescu is best remembered for his Comăneştenilor literary cycle
Literature cycle
Literary cycles are groups of stories grouped around common figures, often based on mythical figures or loosely on historic ones. Cycles which deal with an entire country are sometimes referred to as matters...
, comprising his novels Viaţa la ţară, Tănase Scatiu, În război, Îndreptări and Anna.
Biography
Born in Plăineşti, Râmnicu Sărat County (present-day DumbrăveniDumbraveni, Vrancea
Dumbrăveni is a commune located in Vrancea County, Romania. It is composed of four villages: Alexandru Vlahuţă, Cândeşti, Dragosloveni and Dumbrăveni. From 1948 to 1965, during the rule of Communist dictator Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the commune was called Suvorov, after Alexander Suvorov, the...
, Vrancea County
Vrancea County
Vrancea is a county in Romania, with its seat at Focşani. It is mostly in the historical region of Moldavia but the southern part, below the Milcov River, is in Muntenia.-Demographics:...
), he attended elementary school and gymnasium in Focşani
Focsani
Focşani is the capital city of Vrancea County in Romania on the shores the Milcov river, in the historical region of Moldavia. It has a population of 101,854.-Geography:...
, and later studied at the Matei Basarab High School in Bucharest
Bucharest
Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....
(1873–1876), before entering the University of Bucharest
University of Bucharest
The University of Bucharest , in Romania, is a university founded in 1864 by decree of Prince Alexander John Cuza to convert the former Saint Sava Academy into the current University of Bucharest.-Presentation:...
's Faculty of Law. He graduated in 1880.
Zamfirescu made his debut with a series of poems in Ghimpele review (1877), and, later in the same year, became an enthusiastic supporter of the Romanian war effort during the Independence War, an experience which placed its mark on his later works and choice of subjects. Three years later, he became associated with Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski was a Wallachian-born Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism in his native country, and for leading the Romanian Symbolist movement during its early decades...
's Literatorul, a circle of Symbolist
Symbolism (arts)
Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style had its beginnings with the publication Les Fleurs du mal by Charles Baudelaire...
writers, publishing a Romantic
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
poem titled Levante şi Kalavryta ("Levante and Kalavryta"). At the time, his work was under the influence of Macedonski's Parnassianism.
In 1880, he was appointed public prosecutor in the Northern Dobruja
Northern Dobruja
Northern Dobruja is the part of Dobruja within the borders of Romania. It lies between the lower Danube river and the Black Sea, bordered in south by Bulgarian Southern Dobruja.-Geography:...
n town of Hârşova
Hârsova
Hârşova is a town located on the right bank of the Danube, in Constanţa County, Romania, with a population of 11,000.The village of Vadu Oii is administered by the town...
, while being employed, until 1884, as literary columnist for România Liberă
România Libera
România Liberă is one of the leading newspapers in Romania. Based in Bucharest, the Romanian-language daily has a paid daily circulation of 40,000....
. At the time, the editorial staff also included the writers Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea
Barbu Stefanescu Delavrancea
Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea was a Romanian writer and poet, considered one of Romania's greatest figures in the National awakening of Romania.-External links:*...
, Alexandru Vlahuţă
Alexandru Vlahuta
Alexandru Vlahuţă was a Romanian writer. His best known work is România pitorească, an overview of Romania's landscape in the form of a travelogue. He was also the main editor of Sămănătorul magazine, alongside George Coşbuc....
, and D. D. Racoviţă-Sphinx. Zamfirescu contributed articles in which he declared his dislike for naturalism
Naturalism (literature)
Naturalism was a literary movement taking place from the 1880s to 1940s that used detailed realism to suggest that social conditions, heredity, and environment had inescapable force in shaping human character...
, as well as distancing himself from the Realism
Realism (arts)
Realism in the visual arts and literature refers to the general attempt to depict subjects "in accordance with secular, empirical rules", as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation...
of his contemporaries Ion Luca Caragiale
Ion Luca Caragiale
Ion Luca Caragiale was a Wallachian-born Romanian playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist...
and Ioan Slavici
Ioan Slavici
Ioan Slavici was a Transylvanian-born Romanian writer and journalist. He made his debut in Convorbiri literare , with the comedy Fata de birău...
(despite common perception, he claimed he had "nothing in common" with the latter two). At the time, he also contributed political articles under the pen name Don Padil.
In 1882, after briefly serving as a prosecutor
Prosecutor
The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the common law adversarial system, or the civil law inquisitorial system...
in Târgovişte
Târgoviste
Târgoviște is a city in the Dâmbovița county of Romania. It is situated on the right bank of the Ialomiţa River. , it had an estimated population of 89,000. One village, Priseaca, is administered by the city.-Name:...
and resigning, Duiliu Zamfirescu moved back to Focşani, where he practiced law and was a French language
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
substitute teacher. Later in the same year, he settled in Bucharest and joined România Liberăs editorial staff, publishing his first volume of prose and poems, Fără titlu ("Untitled"), in 1883. Zamfirescu authored his debut novel, În faţa vieţii ("Facing Life") in 1884—the work was noted for the chapter "Pesimistul de la Soleni" ("The Pessimist
Pessimism
Pessimism, from the Latin word pessimus , is a state of mind in which one perceives life negatively. Value judgments may vary dramatically between individuals, even when judgments of fact are undisputed. The most common example of this phenomenon is the "Is the glass half empty or half full?"...
of Soleni"), a satire of the Russian
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
-born socialist
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
thinker Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea was a Romanian Marxist theorist, politician, sociologist, literary critic, and journalist....
.
In 1885, he came out first in an examination for the office of legation
Legation
A legation was the term used in diplomacy to denote a diplomatic representative office lower than an embassy. Where an embassy was headed by an Ambassador, a legation was headed by a Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary....
Attaché
Attaché
Attaché is a French term in diplomacy referring to a person who is assigned to the diplomatic or administrative staff of a higher placed person or another service or agency...
, and was consequently employed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while at the same time teaching the Romanian language
Romanian language
Romanian Romanian Romanian (or Daco-Romanian; obsolete spellings Rumanian, Roumanian; self-designation: română, limba română ("the Romanian language") or românește (lit. "in Romanian") is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova...
at the Sf. Gheorghe High School. He also began associating with the Junimea
Junimea
Junimea was a Romanian literary society founded in Iaşi in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi...
circle and began writing for its magazine, Convorbiri Literare, bringing his writings to the attention of Titu Maiorescu
Titu Maiorescu
Titu Liviu Maiorescu was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the Junimea Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Romanian culture in the second half of the 19th century....
, while becoming a regular in the literary circle formed around the restaurant Casa Capşa
Casa Capsa
Casa Capşa is a historic restaurant in Bucharest, Romania, first established in 1852. At various times it has also included a hotel; most recently, it reopened as a 61-room hotel 17 June 2003....
. He was part of a small group of literary figures who oscillated between Literatorul and Maiorescu's circle—others to do so were Vasile Alecsandri
Vasile Alecsandri
Vasile Alecsandri was a Romanian poet, playwright, politician, and diplomat. He collected Romanian folk songs and was one of the principal animators of the 19th century movement for Romanian cultural identity and union of Moldavia and Wallachia....
, Veronica Micle
Veronica Micle
Veronica Micle was an Imperial Austrian-born Romanian poet, whose work was influenced by Romanticism. She is best known for her love affair with the poet Mihai Eminescu, one of the most important Romanian writers.-Biography:Born in Năsăud, Micle was the second child of the shoemaker Ilie Câmpeanu...
and Matilda Cugler-Poni. The first of his poems to be published with Maiorescu's approval was titled Iarna ("Winter")—printed in June 1884. Zamfirescu is considered one of the most important writers to have been associated with Junimea during the final stage of its existence. He nonetheless maintained some distance to the society, and reportedly irritated Titu Maiorescu by collaborating with the newly-established anti-Junimist magazines Literatură şi Artă Română (edited by N. Petraşcu
N. Petrascu
N. Petraşcu or Pĕtraşcu was a Romanian journalist, essayist, literary critic, novelist, and memoirist...
, on whom Zamfirescu was to be an influence, and Dimitrie C. Ollănescu-Ascanio).
Ultimately, in May 1885, Zamfirescu was dispatched to Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, as legation secretary in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, a position which he filled until 1906, with a hiatus (1892–1894) during which he was assigned to Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and later Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
. He was a colleague of Dimitrie Ghyka, and remembered for welcoming the ethnic Romanian
Romanians
The Romanians are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania....
Transylvania
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
n activist Badea Cârţan
Badea Cârtan
Badea Cârţan was a self-taught ethnic Romanian shepherd who fought for the independence of the Romanians of Transylvania , distributing Romanian-language books that he secretly brought from Romania to their villages...
during the latter's celebrated trip to the Italian capital (1896). Zamfirescu married an Italian woman, Henrietta Allievi, who died in 1920.
An enthusiastic admirer of Leo Tolstoy
Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist...
's writings, he began work on a monograph
Monograph
A monograph is a work of writing upon a single subject, usually by a single author.It is often a scholarly essay or learned treatise, and may be released in the manner of a book or journal article. It is by definition a single document that forms a complete text in itself...
entirely dedicated to the latter (excerpts of which were first published in 1892 issues of Convorbiri Literare). With his 1894 volume of poetry Alte orizonturi ("Other Horizons"), Zamfirescu entered a prolific phase of his literary career: in 1894-1895, Convorbiri Literare serialized his novel Viaţa la ţară ("Life in the Country"), followed in 1895-1896 by Tănase Scatiu, and, in 1897-1898, În război ("At War"); in 1895, he also published his collected novella
Novella
A novella is a written, fictional, prose narrative usually longer than a novelette but shorter than a novel. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Awards for science fiction define the novella as having a word count between 17,500 and 40,000...
s (Nuvele romane, "Roman Novellas"), followed by the poetry volumes Imnuri păgâne ("Pagan Hymns", 1897), and Poezii nouă ("New Poems", 1899).
His relations with Dobrogeanu-Gherea was tense, but, in 1890, Zamfirescu approved of the decision taken by the Theodor Rosetti
Theodor Rosetti
Theodor Rosetti was a Romanian writer, journalist and politician who served as Prime Minister of Romania between 13 April 1888 and 11 April 1889....
cabinet to award the Romanian citizenship to the philosopher (at a time when his Jewish ethnicity would have made it extremely hard to obtain). The same year, Dobrogeanu-Gherea published a study of Zamfirescu's works. The two opposed each other over economic ideas and Dobrogeanu-Gherea's application of Marxism
Marxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
to the Romanian society—examining the works of Achille Loria
Achille Loria
Achille Loria was an Italian political economist.He was educated at the lyceum of his native city and the universities of Bologna, Pavia, Rome, Berlin, and London and graduated at the University of Bologna...
, Zamfirescu collected Marxist-inspired notions that, he believed, contradicted Dobrogeanu-Gherea from inside his own camp. When Maiorescu and the Romanian Marxists were engaged in a lengthy polemic, he added his own arguments in support of the former.
Between 1901 and 1902, his novel Îndreptări ("Betterments") was serialized by the magazine Literatură şi Artă Română, which was a sign of cooling relations between Zamfirescu and his mentor Maiorescu (nevertheless, Convorbiri Literare continued to publish Zamfirescu's novel Anna in 1906). He apparently sought to include in his work both major tendencies of 19th century Romanian literature
Literature of Romania
Romanian literature is literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language.Eugène Ionesco is one of the foremost playwrights of the Theatre of the Absurd....
—"art for art's sake
Art for art's sake
"Art for art's sake" is the usual English rendering of a French slogan, from the early 19th century, l'art pour l'art, and expresses a philosophy that the intrinsic value of art, and the only "true" art, is divorced from any didactic, moral or utilitarian function...
" as preached by Maiorescu and the "tendentious art
Didacticism
Didacticism is an artistic philosophy that emphasizes instructional and informative qualities in literature and other types of art. The term has its origin in the Ancient Greek word διδακτικός , "related to education/teaching." Originally, signifying learning in a fascinating and intriguing...
" notably advocated by Dobrogeanu-Gherea. Around 1905, through the articles of Simion Mehedinţi
Simion Mehedinti
Simion Mehedinţi was a Romanian geographer and member of the Romanian Academy. A figure of importance in the Junimea literary club, he was for a while editor of its magazine, Convorbiri Literare....
, his work came to be criticized by the traditionalist magazine Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul or Semănătorul was a literary and political magazine published in Romania between 1901 and 1910. Founded by poets Alexandru Vlahuţă and George Coşbuc, it is primarily remembered as a tribune for early 20th century traditionalism, neoromanticism and ethnic nationalism...
, who coupled a rejection of modernism
Modernism
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement, its set of cultural tendencies and array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society...
with an appreciation of for folklore
Folklore
Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called...
.
In 1909, Zamfirescu was accepted to the Academy, and delivered a much-discussed speech on the influence of Poporanism
Poporanism
The word “poporanism” is derived from “popor”, meaning “people” in the Romanian language. The ideology of Romanian Populism and poporanism are interchangeable. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, populism is distinguished by its opposition to socialism, promotion of voting rights for...
and traditionalism in literature, showing his disapproval for both currents. It stated:
"I do not go as far as to state that the peasants' soul is not at all interesting to literature; that is because for me, all of nature is interesting. Despite this, the greatest critics and the greatest creators of human characters do not deal with simple souls, because they are as uneventful as nothingness itself."
Zamfirescu thus attacked the use of folklore for direct inspiration, which saw Maiorescu, among others, defending folk literature and its supporters. Maiorescu had by then ceased most contacts with his former protegé. There were also notable tensions between Zamfirescu and the Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga
Octavian Goga
Octavian Goga was a Romanian politician, poet, playwright, journalist, and translator.-Life:Born in Răşinari, nearby Sibiu, he was an active member in the Romanian nationalistic movement in Transylvania and of its leading group, the Romanian National Party in Austria-Hungary. Before World War I,...
, whose work was hailed as an example by both Maiorescu and Sămănătorul.
The same year, Zamfirescu was named a Minister Plenipotentiary and the Romanian Kingdom
Kingdom of Romania
The Kingdom of Romania was the Romanian state based on a form of parliamentary monarchy between 13 March 1881 and 30 December 1947, specified by the first three Constitutions of Romania...
's envoy to the Danube Commission
Danube Commission
The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of navigation conditions of the Danube River, from its source in Germany to its outlets in Romania and Ukraine, leading to the Black Sea. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river, replacing previous...
. His Furfanţo volume of short stories and his novel Lydda were both printed in 1911. He was relieved of his diplomatic post in 1913, at a time when Maiorescu became Premier of a Conservative Party cabinet—this came after a Romanian Army officer reported statements made by Zamfirescu, which he alleged were unpatriotic
Patriotism
Patriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
. Reportedly, Maiorescu never gave Zamfirescu a chance to explain himself.
During World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, following the occupation of southern Romania
Romanian Campaign (World War I)
The Romanian Campaign was part of the Balkan theatre of World War I, with Romania and Russia allied against the armies of the Central Powers. Fighting took place from August 1916 to December 1917, across most of present-day Romania, including Transylvania, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian...
by the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
, Zamfirescu followed Romanian authorities in their Iaşi
Iasi
Iași is the second most populous city and a municipality in Romania. Located in the historical Moldavia region, Iași has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Romanian social, cultural, academic and artistic life...
refuge. By late 1918, he became a founding member of the People's Party, led by General Alexandru Averescu
Alexandru Averescu
Alexandru Averescu was a Romanian marshal and populist politician. A Romanian Armed Forces Commander during World War I, he served as Prime Minister of three separate cabinets . He first rose to prominence during the peasant's revolt of 1907, which he helped repress in violence...
, and edited the Iaşi-based voice of the movement, Îndreptarea. Under the second Averescu cabinet, Zamfirescu served as Foreign Minister in March–June 1920, and then as President of the Chamber of Deputies
Chamber of Deputies of Romania
The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house in Romania's bicameral parliament. It has 315 seats, to which deputies are elected by direct popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve four-year terms...
.
His short term in office was noted for the establishment of Romanian relations with the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
(see Roman Catholicism in Romania
Roman Catholicism in Romania
The Roman Catholic Church in Romania is a Latin Rite Christian church, part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and Curia in Rome. Its administration is centered in Bucharest, and comprises two archdioceses and four other dioceses...
). In 1919, Vladimir Ghika
Vladimir Ghika
Vladimir Ghika was a prince, diplomat, writer, man of charity and the Romanian minister's nephew Grigore Alexandru Ghika, the last prince of Moldavia. Ghika Vladimir's father was John Gregory Ghika, minister of foriegn affairs of Romania. His brother was Dimitrie I. Ghika...
had been appointed Romanian representative to the Papacy
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
by the National Romanian Council, an institution which campaigned for the recognition of Greater Romania
Greater Romania
The Greater Romania generally refers to the territory of Romania in the years between the First World War and the Second World War, the largest geographical extent of Romania up to that time and its largest peacetime extent ever ; more precisely, it refers to the territory of the Kingdom of...
at the Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
. When Ghika's term expired, he was replaced by Zamfirescu with Dimitrie Pennescu, who was Romania's first Ambassador to the Vatican. The Apostolic Nunciature
Nuncio
Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church...
in Romania was set up as a result of this, and first held by Archbishop Francesco Marmaggi
Francesco Marmaggi
Francesco Marmaggi was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Prefect of the Congregation of the Council and, earlier, as Nuncio in Romania, Czechoslovakia and Poland, as well as being a special envoy to Turkey.-Biography:Francesco Marmaggi was born in Rome at a time when the...
.
Duiliu Zamfirescu's last published works were his poetry volume Pe Marea Neagră ("On the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
", 1919) and a collection of autobiographical pieces and short stories, O muză ("A Muse", 1920). In July 1921, he was involved in projects to crown King
King of Romania
King of the Romanians , rather than King of Romania , was the official title of the ruler of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when Romania was proclaimed a republic....
Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I of Romania
Ferdinand was the King of Romania from 10 October 1914 until his death.-Early life:Born in Sigmaringen in southwestern Germany, the Roman Catholic Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, later simply of Hohenzollern, was a son of Leopold, Prince of...
as "King of Greater Romania". He died at Agapia
Agapia
Agapia is a commune in Neamţ County, Romania. It is composed of four villages: Agapia, Filioara, Săcăluşeşti and Văratec.At the 2002 census, 100% of inhabitants were ethnic Romanians, and 99.2% were Romanian Orthodox....
in 1922, and was buried in Focşani's southern cemetery.
Style, assessments, and legacy
Zamfirescu's creations were original in style, blending a series of contrasting influences. One of the most enduring of these was the prose of Nicolae Gane. After parting with Parnassianism and RomanticismRomanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
, Duiliu Zamfirescu adopted some of Gane's themes (including his compassionate perspective on the decay of low-ranking boyar
Boyar
A boyar, or bolyar , was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Moscovian, Kievan Rus'ian, Bulgarian, Wallachian, and Moldavian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes , from the 10th century through the 17th century....
s as a social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
) and, in part, his storytelling techniques. The writer was also known for the frequent comparisons he drew between his novels and those of Leo Tolstoy
Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist...
. Most of his later works bear the imprint of Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism is the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome...
.
The impact of Junimea
Junimea
Junimea was a Romanian literary society founded in Iaşi in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi...
guidelines in his writings is a disputed subject. An opponent of both strict Realism
Realism (arts)
Realism in the visual arts and literature refers to the general attempt to depict subjects "in accordance with secular, empirical rules", as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation...
and rural traditionalism, Zamfirescu ridiculed the works of Junimist novelist Ioan Slavici
Ioan Slavici
Ioan Slavici was a Transylvanian-born Romanian writer and journalist. He made his debut in Convorbiri literare , with the comedy Fata de birău...
as "sentimental mawkishness". Such contradictions have literary historians such as Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu was a Romanian literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translator. Known for his left-wing and anti-fascist convictions, he had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Romanian literature and art...
to leave him out of their essays on Junimism. It was also proposed that Zamfirescu associated with both Literatorul and Junimea
Junimea
Junimea was a Romanian literary society founded in Iaşi in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi...
due to one of their very few common traits, which was political in nature: the two groups shared Zamfirescu's conservatism
Conservatism
Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and supports, at the most, minimal and gradual change in society. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism...
and his interest in preserving a Romanian aristocracy
Aristocracy
Aristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
on the boyar model. Although his similarities with Junimea were extended after he adopted Neoclassical guidelines, Zamfirescu strongly disagreed with Maiorescu and his disciples on the issue of peasant themes and folklore in novels, arguing that the new literature was supposed to draw inspiration from the urban environment and the rural upper class
Upper class
In social science, the "upper class" is the group of people at the top of a social hierarchy. Members of an upper class may have great power over the allocation of resources and governmental policy in their area.- Historical meaning :...
. In one instance, he is known to have referred to Junimeas theory on the peasant novel using the French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
expression c'est bourgeois et plat ("it is bourgeois
Bourgeoisie
In sociology and political science, bourgeoisie describes a range of groups across history. In the Western world, between the late 18th century and the present day, the bourgeoisie is a social class "characterized by their ownership of capital and their related culture." A member of the...
and plain").
In many ways, however, Zamfirescu was a Realist, notably using the guidelines imposed by Junimea as a means to give an accurate portrayal of his characters' speech. Researcher Z. Ornea argued that the main disagreement between him and the literary society was over Maiorescu's view that the national values of Romania were mostly embodied by the peasants, with Zamfirescu arguing that these had also been preserved by the cultured groups of low-ranking boyars. As noted by Ornea, Zamfirescu's focus on the latter group and his nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
came to contrast with his aesthetic guidelines, and, paradoxically, led to virtually all of his novels having a rural background and displaying a strong sympathy for the peasantry.
Thus, Zamfirescu's positive characters lash out at boyars of foreign origins, to whom they refer as "Phanariotes
Phanariotes
Phanariots, Phanariotes, or Phanariote Greeks were members of those prominent Greek families residing in Phanar , the chief Greek quarter of Constantinople, where the Ecumenical Patriarchate is situated.For all their cosmopolitanism and often Western education, the Phanariots were...
", and tolerate the unscrupulous Tănase Scatiu in their company only because he is from the countryside. In parallel, Scatiu is also disliked for being a Greek and a profiteering estate leaseholder
Leasehold estate
A leasehold estate is an ownership of a temporary right to land or property in which a lessee or a tenant holds rights of real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord....
—indicative of Zamfirescu's own social and national views. Zamfirescu believed in a strong and natural connection between the landowners and their property, as well as between the landowners and their community—this theme was found with many conservatives of his day, including the Junimists Petre P. Carp
Petre P. Carp
Petre P. Carp , commonly rendered as P. P. Carp, was a Romanian conservative politician and literary critic who served as a Prime Minister of Romania for two terms...
and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru
Constantin Radulescu-Motru
Constantin Rădulescu-Motru was a Romanian philosopher, psychologist, sociologist, logician, academic, dramatist, as well as centre-left nationalist politician with a noted anti-fascist discourse...
, and announced a similar theory constructed by historian Nicolae Iorga
Nicolae Iorga
Nicolae Iorga was a Romanian historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, poet and playwright. Co-founder of the Democratic Nationalist Party , he served as a member of Parliament, President of the Deputies' Assembly and Senate, cabinet minister and briefly as Prime Minister...
. In his fictional world, peasants make brief appearances as secondary characters, noted for their deep respect for the traditional owners, as well as for their dislike of all change. In parallel, Zamfirescu introduced socialist
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
agitators as negative characters, and, in Lume nouă şi lume veche ("New World and Old World"), one of his less known novels, gave them the central stage as a means to satirize
Satire
Satire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement...
them.
Duiliu Zamfirescu remained a maverick throughout his life, and his publicized outbursts against various trends has probably contributed to the decline in interests among his public and critics. Ornea described him as "immeasurably arrogant, petulant and a snob
Snob
A snob is someone who believes that some people are inherently inferior to him or her for any one of a variety of reasons, including real or supposed intellect, wealth, education, ancestry, taste, beauty, nationality, et cetera. Often, the form of snobbery reflects the snob's personal attributes...
", noting that these traits had led to "unjust" treatment of his work. During the interwar period
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
, Zamfirescu's views were defended by the modernist critic Eugen Lovinescu
Eugen Lovinescu
Eugen Lovinescu was a Romanian modernist literary historian, literary critic, academic, and novelist, who in 1919 established the Sburătorul literary club. He was the father of Monica Lovinescu, and the uncle of Horia Lovinescu, Vasile Lovinescu, and Anton Holban...
, whose arguments were later rejected by his colleague George Călinescu
George Calinescu
George Călinescu was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies...
—the latter argued that Lovinescu had failed to prove Zamfirescu's aesthetic value. Criticism of Zamfirescu was especially acute after his 1909 speech, when both competing traditionalist currents, Poporanism
Poporanism
The word “poporanism” is derived from “popor”, meaning “people” in the Romanian language. The ideology of Romanian Populism and poporanism are interchangeable. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, populism is distinguished by its opposition to socialism, promotion of voting rights for...
and Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul or Semănătorul was a literary and political magazine published in Romania between 1901 and 1910. Founded by poets Alexandru Vlahuţă and George Coşbuc, it is primarily remembered as a tribune for early 20th century traditionalism, neoromanticism and ethnic nationalism...
, attacked his work in its entirety. However, according to Ornea, Zamfirescu's novels serve as a bridge between Junimea and 20th century traditionalism.
Critics have traditionally held a more favorable view of Zamfirescu's correspondence, which was only published after 1937. Offering a glimpse into his lengthy investigation of artistic styles and tenets, they have won acclaim for their refinement.