Culture of Mali
Encyclopedia
The Culture of Mali derives from the shared experience as a colonial and post-colonial polity, and the interaction of the numerous cultures which make up the Malian people. What is today the nation of Mali was united first in the medieval period as the Mali Empire
. While the current state does not include areas in the southwest, and is expanded far to the east and northeast, the dominant roles of the Mandé peoples is shared by the modern Mali and the empire from which it took its name. In the east, Songhai, Bozo and Dogon people predominate, while the Fula people, formerly nomadic, have settled in patches across the nation. Tuareg and Maure peoples continue a largely nomadic desert culture across the north of the nation. The interaction of these communities (along with dozens of other, smaller ethnicities) have created a Malian culture marked by heterogeneity as well as syntheses where these traditions intermix.
While the Malinké, Soninke - Sarakole, Dyula and Bambara peoples form a Mande core (at around 50%) of Malian culture in the heavily populated regions of the south and east, a mosaic of other cultures contribute to a uniquely Malian society. The Fulani
, originally nomadic but now as likely village and city dwelling, are scattered in communities across the nation, as they are over much of West Africa. Fula peoples were amongst the first and most fervent believers in Islam
, a religion which orders the lives of the vast majority of Malians. The Fula traditions of nomadic cattle herding has bequeathed values of mobility, independence, and at the same time created networks of mutual dependence between certain communities and cultures. The Fula transhumance cycle would mean that entire Fula tribes would spend seasons living in Bambara communities, creating formalised relationships called Cousinage. This survives to this day as the Malian cultural institution known as sanankuya
or the "joking relationship". In Mali, the state of Macina
, in the midst of the Inner Niger Delta was dominated by Fula people and culture. Dogon
and Songhay peoples are dominant in the east of the country, with the Songhay Empire pushing traditionally animist Dogon
deep into the isolating hill country of the southeast. Here the Dogon have maintained a unique culture, art, and lifestyle which has become a source of pride for all Malians. All along the edge of the Sahara
, and far into the dry land of isolated oases live the nomadic Berber
Tuareg and the (in the northwest) the Maures (or Moors), of Arab
o-Berber origins. While making up only %10 of the population, these groups bring a distinct culture to modern Mali.
Malian musical traditions are often derived from Mande griot
s or jalis, a family-based caste of performing poets. While today griots are often seen praise singers at local weddings or civic events, historically they served as court historians, advisors, and diplomats.
The music of Mali
is best known outside of Africa for the kora
virtouso Toumani Diabaté
, the late roots and blues guitarist
Ali Farka Touré
and his successors Afel Bocoum
and Vieux Farka Touré
, the Tuareg band Tinariwen
, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita
, the duo Amadou et Mariam, and Oumou Sangare
.
, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life recording the oral traditions of his own Fula teachers, as well as those of Bambara and other Mande neighbors. The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem
's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot
but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. It is a dark history of a loosely disguised Bambara Empire
, focused on slavery, injustice and suffering. Massa Makan Diabaté
, a descendant of griots
, is known in the Francophone
world for his work on The Epic of Sundiata
as well as his "Kouta trilogy," a series of realist
novels loosely based on contemporary life in his hometown of Kita
. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Maryse Condé
(a native of the French Antilles, has made a career writing about the Bamabara people from whom she descends), Moussa Konaté
, and Fily Dabo Sissoko
. Ousmane Sembène
, a Wolof
Senegalese
novelist, set half of his novel God's Bits of Wood
in Bamako
.
that are typical of West Africa
. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies. Friday and Sunday are half days at most businesses, while Saturday in usually a day of rest. Friday afternoon is the time of Muslim weekly prayers
, while the half day on the Christian sabbath is a tradition from the time of French colonial rule. Muslim, Christian, and National celebrations are marked as Public holidays in Mali
.
and millet
are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains. Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from a variety of edible leaves such as spinach
or baobab
with tomato
or peanut
sauces accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken
, mutton, beef
, or goat
). Malian cuisine varies regionally.
("mud cloth"), a handmade cotton
fabric traditionally dyed with ferment
ed mud, has an important place in traditional Malian culture and has, more recently, become a symbol of Malian cultural identity. The cloth is being exported worldwide for use in fashion
, fine art
and decoration.
The most popular sport in Mali is football (soccer), which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations. Most towns have regular games; the most popular national teams are Djoliba, Stad, and Real. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball. The country has produced several notable players for French teams, including Salif Keita
and Jean Tigana
. Basketball
is another major sport; the Mali women's national basketball team
is the only African basketball team competing at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Traditional wrestling
(la lutte) is also somewhat common, though its popularity has declined in recent years. The game wari
, a mancala
variant, is a common pastime.
Mali Empire
The Mali Empire or Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I...
. While the current state does not include areas in the southwest, and is expanded far to the east and northeast, the dominant roles of the Mandé peoples is shared by the modern Mali and the empire from which it took its name. In the east, Songhai, Bozo and Dogon people predominate, while the Fula people, formerly nomadic, have settled in patches across the nation. Tuareg and Maure peoples continue a largely nomadic desert culture across the north of the nation. The interaction of these communities (along with dozens of other, smaller ethnicities) have created a Malian culture marked by heterogeneity as well as syntheses where these traditions intermix.
Ethnic patchwork and intermixing
Mande peoples share a caste system in which certain skills (metalworking, fishing, history-keeping) are passed down through families. The rituals and cultural associations of these activities have spread far beyond the Mande communities themselves.While the Malinké, Soninke - Sarakole, Dyula and Bambara peoples form a Mande core (at around 50%) of Malian culture in the heavily populated regions of the south and east, a mosaic of other cultures contribute to a uniquely Malian society. The Fulani
Fula people
Fula people or Fulani or Fulbe are an ethnic group spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa...
, originally nomadic but now as likely village and city dwelling, are scattered in communities across the nation, as they are over much of West Africa. Fula peoples were amongst the first and most fervent believers in Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, a religion which orders the lives of the vast majority of Malians. The Fula traditions of nomadic cattle herding has bequeathed values of mobility, independence, and at the same time created networks of mutual dependence between certain communities and cultures. The Fula transhumance cycle would mean that entire Fula tribes would spend seasons living in Bambara communities, creating formalised relationships called Cousinage. This survives to this day as the Malian cultural institution known as sanankuya
Sanankuya
Sanankuya refers to a social characteristic present especially among the Mande peoples of Mali, as well as many West African societies in general, often described in English with terms such as "cousinage", "joking relationship", etc..In addition to sanankuya relationships that are pre-established...
or the "joking relationship". In Mali, the state of Macina
Macina
Macina may refer to:*Macina Empire , former state located in present-day Mali*Macina , the area in Mali once controlled by the empire*Macina, Mali-See also:*Masina *Messina...
, in the midst of the Inner Niger Delta was dominated by Fula people and culture. Dogon
Dogon people
The Dogon are an ethnic group living in the central plateau region of Mali, south of the Niger bend near the city of Bandiagara in the Mopti region. The population numbers between 400,000 and 800,000 The Dogon are best known for their religious traditions, their mask dances, wooden sculpture and...
and Songhay peoples are dominant in the east of the country, with the Songhay Empire pushing traditionally animist Dogon
Dogon people
The Dogon are an ethnic group living in the central plateau region of Mali, south of the Niger bend near the city of Bandiagara in the Mopti region. The population numbers between 400,000 and 800,000 The Dogon are best known for their religious traditions, their mask dances, wooden sculpture and...
deep into the isolating hill country of the southeast. Here the Dogon have maintained a unique culture, art, and lifestyle which has become a source of pride for all Malians. All along the edge of the Sahara
Sahara
The Sahara is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over , it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean...
, and far into the dry land of isolated oases live the nomadic Berber
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
Tuareg and the (in the northwest) the Maures (or Moors), of Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
o-Berber origins. While making up only %10 of the population, these groups bring a distinct culture to modern Mali.
Music
Griot
A griot or jeli is a West African storyteller. The griot delivers history as a poet, praise singer, and wandering musician. The griot is a repository of oral tradition. As such, they are sometimes also called bards...
s or jalis, a family-based caste of performing poets. While today griots are often seen praise singers at local weddings or civic events, historically they served as court historians, advisors, and diplomats.
The music of Mali
Music of Mali
The Music of Mali is dominated by forms derived from the ancient Mande Empire. The Mande people make up most of the country's population, and their musicians, professional performers called jeliw , have produced a vibrant popular music scene alongside traditional folk music...
is best known outside of Africa for the kora
Kora (instrument)
The kora is a 21-string bridge-harp used extensively in West Africa.-Description:A kora is built from a large calabash cut in half and covered with cow skin to make a resonator, and has a notched bridge. It does not fit well into any one category of western instruments and would have to be...
virtouso Toumani Diabaté
Toumani Diabaté
Toumani Diabaté is a Malian kora player. In addition to performing the traditional music of Mali, he has also been involved in cross-cultural collaborations with flamenco, blues, jazz, and other international styles.-Biography:...
, the late roots and blues guitarist
Guitarist
A guitarist is a musician who plays the guitar. Guitarists may play a variety of instruments such as classical guitars, acoustic guitars, electric guitars, and bass guitars. Some guitarists accompany themselves on the guitar while singing.- Versatility :The guitarist controls an extremely...
Ali Farka Touré
Ali Farka Touré
Ali Ibrahim “Farka” Touré was a Malian singer and guitarist, and one of the African continent’s most internationally renowned musicians. His music is widely regarded as representing a point of intersection of traditional Malian music and its North American cousin, the blues...
and his successors Afel Bocoum
Afel Bocoum
Afel Bocoum is a musician from Mali, noted as a singer and guitarist. He began his career as a member of Ali Farka Toure's group ASCO, and Toure is often regarded as his mentor. Both men come from the town of Niafunke on the River Niger, and are members of the Sonrai people...
and Vieux Farka Touré
Vieux Farka Touré
Boureima "Vieux" Farka Touré is a Malian singer and guitarist. He is the son of Grammy-winning Malian musician Ali Farka Touré.-Biography:Touré was born in Niafunké, Mali in 1981 to Ali Farka Touré...
, the Tuareg band Tinariwen
Tinariwen
Tinariwen is a band of Tuareg-Berber musicians from the Sahara Desert region of northern Mali. The band was formed around 1979 in refugee camps in Libya but returned to Mali after a cease-fire in the 1990s...
, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita
Salif Keita
Salif Keïta is an internationally recognized afro-pop singer-songwriter from Mali. He is unique not only because of his reputation as the Golden Voice of Africa, but because he has albinism and is a direct descendant of the founder of the Mali Empire, Sundiata Keita...
, the duo Amadou et Mariam, and Oumou Sangare
Oumou Sangaré
Oumou Sangare is a Malian Wassoulou musician, sometimes referred to as "The Songbird of Wassoulou." Wassoulou is a historic region south of the Niger River, and the music there is descended from traditional hunting songs, and is accompanied by a calabash...
.
Literature
Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music, Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers. Mali's literary tradition is largely oral, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories from memory. Amadou Hampâté BâAmadou Hampâté Bâ
Amadou Hampâté Bâ was a Malian writer and ethnologist.-Biography:...
, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life recording the oral traditions of his own Fula teachers, as well as those of Bambara and other Mande neighbors. The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem
Yambo Ouologuem
Yambo Ouologuem is a Malian writer. His first novel, Le Devoir de Violence , won the Prix Renaudot. He later published Lettre à la France nègre , and Les mille et une bibles du sexe under the pseudonym Utto Rodolph...
's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot
Prix Renaudot
The Prix Théophraste-Renaudot or Prix Renaudot is a French literary award which was created in 1926 by ten art critics awaiting the results of the deliberation of the jury of the Prix Goncourt....
but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. It is a dark history of a loosely disguised Bambara Empire
Bambara Empire
The Bamana Empire was a large pre-colonial West African state based at Ségou, now in Mali. It was ruled by the Kulubali or Coulibaly dynasty established circa 1640 by Kaladian Coulibaly also known as Fa Sine or Biton-si-u...
, focused on slavery, injustice and suffering. Massa Makan Diabaté
Massa Makan Diabaté
Massa Makan Diabaté was a Malian historian, author, and playwright.-Biography:Born in 1938 in Kita, Massa Makan Diabaté was the descendant of a long line of West African poets ....
, a descendant of griots
Griot
A griot or jeli is a West African storyteller. The griot delivers history as a poet, praise singer, and wandering musician. The griot is a repository of oral tradition. As such, they are sometimes also called bards...
, is known in the Francophone
Francophone
The adjective francophone means French-speaking, typically as primary language, whether referring to individuals, groups, or places. Often, the word is used as a noun to describe a natively French-speaking person....
world for his work on The Epic of Sundiata
Sundiata Keita
Sundiata Keita, Sundjata Keyita, Mari Djata I or just Sundiata was the founder of the Mali Empire and celebrated as a hero of the Malinke people of West Africa in the semi-historical Epic of Sundiata....
as well as his "Kouta trilogy," a series of realist
Literary realism
Literary realism most often refers to the trend, beginning with certain works of nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors in various countries, towards depictions of contemporary life and society "as they were." In the spirit of...
novels loosely based on contemporary life in his hometown of Kita
Kita, Mali
Kita is a town and commune in western Mali. It lies on the eastern slope of Mount Kita , known for its caves and rock paintings. Today, the city is known for its music, its annual Roman Catholic pilgrimage and its role as a processing center for the surrounding cotton- and peanut-growing region...
. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Maryse Condé
Maryse Condé
Maryse Condé is a Guadeloupean, French language author of historical fiction, best known for her novel Segu . Maryse Condé was born as Maryse Boucolon at Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, the youngest of eight children. In 1953, her parents sent her to study at Lycée Fénelon and Sorbonne in Paris,...
(a native of the French Antilles, has made a career writing about the Bamabara people from whom she descends), Moussa Konaté
Moussa Konaté
Moussa Konaté is a Malian writer, born in 1951 in Kita, Mali.A graduate in Humanities at Mali's Ecole Normale Supérieure in Bamako, he was a teacher for several years before turning to writing...
, and Fily Dabo Sissoko
Fily Dabo Sissoko
Fily Dabo Sissoko was a Malian author and political leader, born 15 May 1900 at Horokoto . He died 30 June 1964, imprisoned at Kidal...
. Ousmane Sembène
Ousmane Sembène
Ousmane Sembène , often credited in the French style as Sembène Ousmane in articles and reference works, was a Senegalese film director, producer and writer...
, a Wolof
Wolof people
The Wolof are an ethnic group found in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania.In Senegal, the Wolof form an ethnic plurality with about 43.3% of the population are Wolofs...
Senegalese
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
novelist, set half of his novel God's Bits of Wood
God's Bits of Wood
God's Bits of Wood is a 1960 novel by the Senegalese author Ousmane Sembène that concerns a railroad strike in colonial Senegal of the 1940s. It was written in French under the title Les bouts de bois de Dieu. The book deals with several ways that the Senegalese and Malians responded to colonialism...
in Bamako
Bamako
Bamako is the capital of Mali and its largest city with a population of 1.8 million . Currently, it is estimated to be the fastest growing city in Africa and sixth fastest in the world...
.
Festivals, food, and clothing
The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity. Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubousBoubou (clothing)
The Grand Boubou/Bubu is one of the names for a flowing wide sleeved robe worn by men in much of West Africa, and to a lesser extent in North Africa, related to the Dashiki suit...
that are typical of West Africa
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Western Africa includes the following 16 countries and an area of approximately 5 million square km:-Flags of West Africa:...
. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies. Friday and Sunday are half days at most businesses, while Saturday in usually a day of rest. Friday afternoon is the time of Muslim weekly prayers
Islamic calendar
The Hijri calendar , also known as the Muslim calendar or Islamic calendar , is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries , and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic...
, while the half day on the Christian sabbath is a tradition from the time of French colonial rule. Muslim, Christian, and National celebrations are marked as Public holidays in Mali
Public holidays in Mali
This is a list of public holidays in Mali....
.
Food
RiceRice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
and millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains. Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from a variety of edible leaves such as spinach
Spinach
Spinach is an edible flowering plant in the family of Amaranthaceae. It is native to central and southwestern Asia. It is an annual plant , which grows to a height of up to 30 cm. Spinach may survive over winter in temperate regions...
or baobab
Baobab
Adansonia is a genus of eight species of tree, six native to Madagascar, one native to mainland Africa and the Arabian Peninsula and one to Australia. The mainland African species also occurs on Madagascar, but it is not a native of that island....
with tomato
Tomato
The word "tomato" may refer to the plant or the edible, typically red, fruit which it bears. Originating in South America, the tomato was spread around the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas, and its many varieties are now widely grown, often in greenhouses in cooler...
or peanut
Peanut
The peanut, or groundnut , is a species in the legume or "bean" family , so it is not a nut. The peanut was probably first cultivated in the valleys of Peru. It is an annual herbaceous plant growing tall...
sauces accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken
Chicken
The chicken is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the Red Junglefowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird...
, mutton, beef
Beef
Beef is the culinary name for meat from bovines, especially domestic cattle. Beef can be harvested from cows, bulls, heifers or steers. It is one of the principal meats used in the cuisine of the Middle East , Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the United States, and is also important in...
, or goat
Goat
The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
). Malian cuisine varies regionally.
Textiles
BògòlanfiniBògòlanfini
Bògòlanfini or bogolan is a handmade Malian cotton fabric traditionally dyed with fermented mud. It has an important place in traditional Malian culture and has, more recently, become a symbol of Malian cultural identity...
("mud cloth"), a handmade cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
fabric traditionally dyed with ferment
Fermentation (biochemistry)
Fermentation is the process of extracting energy from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, using an endogenous electron acceptor, which is usually an organic compound. In contrast, respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen,...
ed mud, has an important place in traditional Malian culture and has, more recently, become a symbol of Malian cultural identity. The cloth is being exported worldwide for use in fashion
Fashion
Fashion, a general term for a currently popular style or practice, especially in clothing, foot wear, or accessories. Fashion references to anything that is the current trend in look and dress up of a person...
, fine art
Fine art
Fine art or the fine arts encompass art forms developed primarily for aesthetics and/or concept rather than practical application. Art is often a synonym for fine art, as employed in the term "art gallery"....
and decoration.
Sports
Salif Keita (footballer)
Salif Keïta Traoré , known as Keita, is a retired Malian footballer who played as a striker.-Club career:In his country, Keita played for AS Real Bamako and Stade Malien...
and Jean Tigana
Jean Tigana
Jean Amadou Tigana is a manager and former French international footballer, having played in midfield and managed professional football extensively throughout France, including 52 appearances and 1 goal for the France national football team during the 1980s.-Playing career:Tigana started his...
. Basketball
Basketball
Basketball is a team sport in which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or "shooting" a ball through the top of a basketball hoop while following a set of rules...
is another major sport; the Mali women's national basketball team
Mali women's national basketball team
The Mali women's national basketball team is the nationally-controlled basketball team representing Mali at world basketball competitions for women. The Malian squad had 1 continental championship which came in 2007 with a win over host Senegal.-History:...
is the only African basketball team competing at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Traditional wrestling
Wrestling
Wrestling is a form of grappling type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. A wrestling bout is a physical competition, between two competitors or sparring partners, who attempt to gain and maintain a superior position...
(la lutte) is also somewhat common, though its popularity has declined in recent years. The game wari
Oware
Oware is an abstract strategy game of Akan origin. Part of the mancala family, it is played throughout West Africa and the Caribbean. Among its many names are Ayò , Awalé , Wari , Ouri, Ouril or Uril , Warri , Adji , and Awélé...
, a mancala
Mancala
Mancala is a family of board games played around the world, sometimes called "sowing" games, or "count-and-capture" games, which describes the game-play. Mancala games play a role in many African and some Asian societies comparable to that of chess in the West, or the game of Go in Eastern Asia...
variant, is a common pastime.
Works cited
- DiPiazza, Francesca Davis. Mali in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books (2007). ISBN 0822565919.
- Hudgens, Jim, Richard Trillo, and Nathalie Calonnec. The Rough Guide to West Africa. Rough GuidesRough GuidesRough Guides Ltd is a travel guidebook and reference publisher, owned by Pearson PLC. Their travel titles cover more than 200 destinations, and are distributed worldwide through the Penguin Group...
(2003). ISBN 1843531186. Milet, Eric & Jean-Luc Manaud. Mali. Editions Olizane (2007). ISBN 2880863511. - Pye-Smith, Charlie & Rhéal Drisdelle. Mali: A Prospect of Peace? Oxfam (1997). ISBN 0855983345.
- Velton, Ross. Mali. Bradt Travel Guides (2004). ISBN 1841620777.