Continentalism
Encyclopedia
Continentalism refers to the agreements or policies that favor the regionalization and/or cooperation between nations within a continent
. The term is used more often in the European and North American contexts, but the concept has been applied to other continents including Australia, Africa and South America.
, which sought to receive delegates from across the populated continent, including the future Canadian provinces of Quebec
and Nova Scotia
.
Continentalism later became largely associated with the ideology of Manifest Destiny
, which included Spanish territories (now Latin America), western U.S. as well as Canada. Due to this, the continentalism grew so much in the United States of America that it transformed into nationalism
. Most of the inhabitants of this country, if not all, call themselves "Americans" as if it was a demonym, and say America to refer to the country United States of America instead of the continents of North and South America. For a more extensive discussion over this polemical case, read the main article: Use of the word American
.
n continent, particularly the United States
, over those with the United Kingdom
and the British Empire
. In the 19th century, continentalism was one of the three main theories of Canadian nationality
, the others being pro-British Imperialism
, and Canadian independence.
The most extreme form of continentalism is annexationism
, which advocates all or part of Canada joining the United States. Opponents of continentalism often argue that stronger ties with the United States could eventually lead to annexation, and that this is to be feared. Continentalists themselves may or may not be in favour of continuing to deepen ties with the United States beyond the economic and into areas like a customs union
, common currency or political union
.
The traditional proponent of continentalism was the Liberal Party of Canada
, and particularly farmers and resource industries that advocated reciprocity
(i.e., free trade
) with the United States. The 1911 federal election
was fought over the issue of a reciprocity agreement that the Liberal government of Wilfrid Laurier
had negotiated with the United States, with the Conservatives of Robert Borden
opposing reciprocity. The Conservatives won the election and cancelled the agreement.
However, the Progressive Conservative Party
took on many continentalist policies beginning during the Brian Mulroney
government in the 1980s, which promoted and successfully signed the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement and, later, the North American Free Trade Agreement
. These policies were maintained by the Liberal and Conservative
governments that followed.
Continentalism today is seen in both negative and positive terms. Canadian
economic nationalists
typically oppose continentalism. Opposing this, many pro-market neo-liberals and neo-conservatives tend to favour it, on the grounds that it opens up commercial and economic opportunities, allowing free trade between nations. As this process is taking place in parallel with and as part of a broader economic globalization
, the increasing trade between Canada and the United States is not generally seen as a threat to Canadian sovereignty.
is a sociopolitical world view
, philosophy
, and movement which seeks to unify native Africans and members of the African diaspora
into a "global African community". Pan-Africanism calls for a politically united Africa
.
Modern Pan-Africanism began around the beginning of the twentieth century. The African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was organized by Henry Sylvester-Williams around 1887, and their first conference was held in 1900.
, especially Venezuela
. Bolivarianism is named after Simón Bolívar
, the 19th century Venezuelan general and liberator who led the struggle for independence throughout much of South America
.
Modern support for "Bolivarianism" is centered in Venezuela and maybe partly responsible for the increased momentum and recent founding of USAN. The Union of South American Nations (Dutch
: - UZAN, - UNASUL, - UNASUR) is an intergovernmental
union integrating two existing customs union
s: Mercosur
and the Andean Community of Nations
, as part of a continuing process of South America
n integration. It is modeled on the European Union
.
Continent
A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as continents—they are : Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.Plate tectonics is...
. The term is used more often in the European and North American contexts, but the concept has been applied to other continents including Australia, Africa and South America.
United States
Historically, the United States of America saw itself as a blossoming continental nation-state. Accordingly, the first governing body for the North American colonists was called the Continental CongressFirst Continental Congress
The First Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen North American colonies that met on September 5, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American Revolution. It was called in response to the passage of the Coercive Acts by the...
, which sought to receive delegates from across the populated continent, including the future Canadian provinces of Quebec
Province of Quebec (1763-1791)
The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years' War. Great Britain acquired Canada by the Treaty of Paris when King Louis XV of France and his advisors chose to keep the territory of Guadeloupe for its valuable sugar crops instead of New France...
and Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
.
Continentalism later became largely associated with the ideology of Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to expand across the continent. It was used by Democrat-Republicans in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico; the concept was denounced by Whigs, and fell into disuse after the mid-19th century.Advocates of...
, which included Spanish territories (now Latin America), western U.S. as well as Canada. Due to this, the continentalism grew so much in the United States of America that it transformed into nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
. Most of the inhabitants of this country, if not all, call themselves "Americans" as if it was a demonym, and say America to refer to the country United States of America instead of the continents of North and South America. For a more extensive discussion over this polemical case, read the main article: Use of the word American
Use of the word American
The meaning of the word American in the English language varies, according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. It is derived from America, a term originally denoting all of the New World...
.
Canada
In Canadian political history, continentalism has referred to policies that emphasize Canadian trade and economic ties within the North AmericaNorth America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
n continent, particularly the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, over those with the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
. In the 19th century, continentalism was one of the three main theories of Canadian nationality
Canadian nationalism
Canadian nationalism is a term which has been applied to ideologies of several different types which highlight and promote specifically Canadian interests over those of other countries, notably the United States...
, the others being pro-British Imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
, and Canadian independence.
The most extreme form of continentalism is annexationism
Annexationist movements of Canada
From the Independence of the United States of America until today, various annexationist movements in Canada have campaigned in favour of U.S. annexation of parts or all of Canada...
, which advocates all or part of Canada joining the United States. Opponents of continentalism often argue that stronger ties with the United States could eventually lead to annexation, and that this is to be feared. Continentalists themselves may or may not be in favour of continuing to deepen ties with the United States beyond the economic and into areas like a customs union
Customs union
A customs union is a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. The participant countries set up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different import quotas...
, common currency or political union
Political union
A political union is a type of state which is composed of or created out of smaller states. Unlike a personal union, the individual states share a common government and the union is recognized internationally as a single political entity...
.
The traditional proponent of continentalism was the Liberal Party of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada
The Liberal Party of Canada , colloquially known as the Grits, is the oldest federally registered party in Canada. In the conventional political spectrum, the party sits between the centre and the centre-left. Historically the Liberal Party has positioned itself to the left of the Conservative...
, and particularly farmers and resource industries that advocated reciprocity
Reciprocity (Canadian politics)
In nineteenth and early twentieth century Canadian politics, the term reciprocity was used to describe the concept of free trade with the United States of America...
(i.e., free trade
Free trade
Under a free trade policy, prices emerge from supply and demand, and are the sole determinant of resource allocation. 'Free' trade differs from other forms of trade policy where the allocation of goods and services among trading countries are determined by price strategies that may differ from...
) with the United States. The 1911 federal election
Canadian federal election, 1911
The Canadian federal election of 1911 was held on September 21 to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 12th Parliament of Canada.-Summary:...
was fought over the issue of a reciprocity agreement that the Liberal government of Wilfrid Laurier
Wilfrid Laurier
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, GCMG, PC, KC, baptized Henri-Charles-Wilfrid Laurier was the seventh Prime Minister of Canada from 11 July 1896 to 6 October 1911....
had negotiated with the United States, with the Conservatives of Robert Borden
Robert Borden
Sir Robert Laird Borden, PC, GCMG, KC was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He served as the eighth Prime Minister of Canada from October 10, 1911 to July 10, 1920, and was the third Nova Scotian to hold this office...
opposing reciprocity. The Conservatives won the election and cancelled the agreement.
However, the Progressive Conservative Party
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
The Progressive Conservative Party of Canada was a Canadian political party with a centre-right stance on economic issues and, after the 1970s, a centrist stance on social issues....
took on many continentalist policies beginning during the Brian Mulroney
Brian Mulroney
Martin Brian Mulroney, was the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of major economic reforms, such as the Canada-U.S...
government in the 1980s, which promoted and successfully signed the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement and, later, the North American Free Trade Agreement
North American Free Trade Agreement
The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA is an agreement signed by the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement...
. These policies were maintained by the Liberal and Conservative
Conservative Party of Canada
The Conservative Party of Canada , is a political party in Canada which was formed by the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in 2003. It is positioned on the right of the Canadian political spectrum...
governments that followed.
Continentalism today is seen in both negative and positive terms. Canadian
Canadian nationalism
Canadian nationalism is a term which has been applied to ideologies of several different types which highlight and promote specifically Canadian interests over those of other countries, notably the United States...
economic nationalists
Economic nationalism
Economic nationalism is a term used to describe policies which emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. It opposes globalization in many cases, or at...
typically oppose continentalism. Opposing this, many pro-market neo-liberals and neo-conservatives tend to favour it, on the grounds that it opens up commercial and economic opportunities, allowing free trade between nations. As this process is taking place in parallel with and as part of a broader economic globalization
Economic globalization
Economic globalization refers to increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, service, technology and capital...
, the increasing trade between Canada and the United States is not generally seen as a threat to Canadian sovereignty.
Continentalism in Australia
Australia approved by referendums held over 1898 - 1900 "The Constitution of Australia" which united the people of the Australian Continent under a single political union separate from the United Kingdom. Further steps of independence were taken with the passage of the "Statute of Westminster" in 1931 and the "Australia Act" in 1986.Continentalism in Africa
Continentalism in Africa commonly referred to as Pan-AfricanismPan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism is a movement that seeks to unify African people or people living in Africa, into a "one African community". Differing types of Pan-Africanism seek different levels of economic, racial, social, or political unity...
is a sociopolitical world view
World view
A comprehensive world view is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or society's knowledge and point-of-view, including natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and...
, philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, and movement which seeks to unify native Africans and members of the African diaspora
African diaspora
The African diaspora was the movement of Africans and their descendants to places throughout the world—predominantly to the Americas also to Europe, the Middle East and other places around the globe...
into a "global African community". Pan-Africanism calls for a politically united Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
.
Modern Pan-Africanism began around the beginning of the twentieth century. The African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was organized by Henry Sylvester-Williams around 1887, and their first conference was held in 1900.
Continentalism in South America
Continentalism in South America is linked to and associated with Bolivarianism; a set of political doctrines that enjoys currency in parts of South AmericaSouth America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
, especially Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...
. Bolivarianism is named after Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...
, the 19th century Venezuelan general and liberator who led the struggle for independence throughout much of South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
.
Modern support for "Bolivarianism" is centered in Venezuela and maybe partly responsible for the increased momentum and recent founding of USAN. The Union of South American Nations (Dutch
Dutch language
Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...
: - UZAN, - UNASUL, - UNASUR) is an intergovernmental
Intergovernmentalism
-A theory of regional integration:The theory is not applied on European integration which rejects the idea of neofunctionalism. The theory, initially proposed by Stanley Hoffmann suggests that national governments control the level and speed of European integration. Any increase in power at...
union integrating two existing customs union
Customs union
A customs union is a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. The participant countries set up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different import quotas...
s: Mercosur
Mercosur
Mercosur or Mercosul is an economic and political agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Founded in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción, which was later amended and updated by the 1994 Treaty of Ouro Preto. Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people,...
and the Andean Community of Nations
Andean Community of Nations
The Andean Community is a customs union comprising the South American countries of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The trade bloc was called the Andean Pact until 1996 and came into existence with the signing of the Cartagena Agreement in 1969...
, as part of a continuing process of South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
n integration. It is modeled on the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
.
See also
- Continental unionContinental unionA continental union is an inter-governmental, supra-national, or a federation of member states located in the same continent, or close to it. Continental unions are a relatively new type of political entity in the history of human government. Throughout most of human history, political...
- Eurasianism
- Pan-AsianismPan-AsianismPan-Asianism is an ideology or a movement that Asian nations unite and solidify and create a continental identity to defeat the designs of the Western nations to perpetuate hegemony.-Japanese Asianism:...
- Pan-European identityPan-European identityPan-European identity refers to the sense of personal identification with Europe. The most concrete examples of pan-europeanism are the European Union and the older Council of Europe...
- Pan-Asianism
- Foreign Investment Review AgencyForeign Investment Review AgencyInvest In Canada is the Government of Canada organization that promotes and attracts foreign direct investment into Canada. As a bureau in the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Invest In Canada assists companies planning to invest in Canada or to expand their Canadian...
- Pan-AfricanismPan-AfricanismPan-Africanism is a movement that seeks to unify African people or people living in Africa, into a "one African community". Differing types of Pan-Africanism seek different levels of economic, racial, social, or political unity...
- Pan-AmericanismPan-Americanism-History:The struggle for independence after 1810 by the Latin American nations evoked a sense of unity, especially in South America where, under Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south, there were cooperative efforts. Francisco Morazán briefly headed a Federal Republic of...