Chinese units of measurement
Encyclopedia
Chinese units of measurement are the customary and traditional unit
s of measure used in China
. In the People's Republic of China
, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI
(metric) units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16
instead of 10
. In Hong Kong
, the British Imperial system was used together with Hong Kong units of measurement
, which were traditional Chinese weights and measures, and now traditional Chinese units and Imperial units are used alongside the metric system, which was introduced by legislation in 1976 as the official standard system of weights and measures. Taiwanese units of measurement
, which appeared under the colonial influences of the Dutch and the Japanese, for the most part may have similar names but are different from the Chinese units of measurement. Taiwan is now fully metricated.
The Chinese name for most SI units is based on that of the closest traditional unit. When it is necessary to emphasize which system is used, the words "market" (市 shì) for traditional units or "common/standard" (公 gōng) for SI units may be added in front of the name. SI is the official system of units, but traditional units are still ubiquitously used in everyday life.
Note: The names lí (厘) and fēn (分) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.
created the first measurement units. The Xiao Erya
and Kongzi jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the Records of the Grand Historian
, these human body units caused inconsistency, and Yu the Great
, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. Ruler
s with decimal units have been unearthed from Shang Dynasty
tombs.
In the Zhou Dynasty
, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the Warring States Period
, Qin Shi Huang
unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the Han Dynasty
, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the Book of Han
.
Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the Ming Dynasty
that the traditional system was revised. In 1928, the government of the Republic of China
adopted the metric system
as the official standard.
In 1976 the Hong Kong
Metrication Ordinance
allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the International System of Units
(SI) metric system.
The government of the People's Republic of China
resumed using the traditional system until 1984, when it adopted the SI system. The SI system became the national standard in 1987.
(尺), bu
(步), and li (里). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 bu has consisted of either 5 or 6 chi, while 1 li has consisted of 300 or 360 bu.
.)
Since 1645 (except for 1665–1669), the above equivalents have been true. Except for several short periods of a few years each, before 1645 (before the Qing dynasty
) the following were true:
1 rì := 12 shíchén = 10 shí = 100 kè, and
1 shíchén := 8 1/3 kè = 8 kè 20 fēn.
Units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of...
s of measure used in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. In the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI
Si
Si, si, or SI may refer to :- Measurement, mathematics and science :* International System of Units , the modern international standard version of the metric system...
(metric) units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16
16 (number)
16 is the natural number following 15 and preceding 17. 16 is a composite number, and a square number, being 42 = 4 × 4. It is the smallest number with exactly five divisors, its proper divisors being , , and ....
instead of 10
10 (number)
10 is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11.-In mathematics:Ten is a composite number, its proper divisors being , and...
. In Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
, the British Imperial system was used together with Hong Kong units of measurement
Hong Kong units of measurement
Hong Kong units of measurement is based on the measurement units of Chinese of Qing Empire, British Imperial and metric. Both British Imperial and Chinese units were used until recently. In 1976 Hong Kong started the conversion to the metric system. This has now been almost completed with almost...
, which were traditional Chinese weights and measures, and now traditional Chinese units and Imperial units are used alongside the metric system, which was introduced by legislation in 1976 as the official standard system of weights and measures. Taiwanese units of measurement
Taiwanese units of measurement
Taiwanese units of measurement are the customary and traditional units of measure used in Taiwan. Many of the units derive from Japanese units of measurement and have similar names as Chinese units of measurement but different conversions than in China or Hong Kong...
, which appeared under the colonial influences of the Dutch and the Japanese, for the most part may have similar names but are different from the Chinese units of measurement. Taiwan is now fully metricated.
The Chinese name for most SI units is based on that of the closest traditional unit. When it is necessary to emphasize which system is used, the words "market" (市 shì) for traditional units or "common/standard" (公 gōng) for SI units may be added in front of the name. SI is the official system of units, but traditional units are still ubiquitously used in everyday life.
Note: The names lí (厘) and fēn (分) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.
History
According to the Liji, the legendary Yellow EmperorYellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor or Huangdi1 is a legendary Chinese sovereign and culture hero, included among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he reigned from 2697–2597 or 2696–2598 BC...
created the first measurement units. The Xiao Erya
Xiao Erya
The Xiao Erya was an early Chinese dictionary that supplements the Erya. It was supposedly compiled in the early Han Dynasty by Kong Fu , a descendent of Confucius...
and Kongzi jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the Records of the Grand Historian
Records of the Grand Historian
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name Shiji , written from 109 BC to 91 BC, was the Magnum opus of Sima Qian, in which he recounted Chinese history from the time of the Yellow Emperor until his own time...
, these human body units caused inconsistency, and Yu the Great
Yu the Great
Yu the Great , was a legendary ruler of Ancient China famed for his introduction of flood control, inaugurating dynastic rule in China by founding the Xia Dynasty, and for his upright moral character....
, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. Ruler
Ruler
A ruler, sometimes called a rule or line gauge, is an instrument used in geometry, technical drawing, printing and engineering/building to measure distances and/or to rule straight lines...
s with decimal units have been unearthed from Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
tombs.
In the Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the Warring States Period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
, Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the Book of Han
Book of Han
The Book of Han, Hanshu or History of the Former Han Dynasty |Fan Ye]] . Various scholars have estimated that the earliest material covered in the book dates back to between 206 and 202 BCE...
.
Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
that the traditional system was revised. In 1928, the government of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
adopted the metric system
Metric system
The metric system is an international decimalised system of measurement. France was first to adopt a metric system, in 1799, and a metric system is now the official system of measurement, used in almost every country in the world...
as the official standard.
In 1976 the Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
Metrication Ordinance
Metrication Ordinance
The Metrication Ordinance was enacted in 1976 in Hong Kong. The law allowed a gradual replacement of the Imperial units and Chinese units of measurement in favor of the International System of Units Metric System. The adoption was facilitated under the government's Metrication Committee....
allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the International System of Units
International System of Units
The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system and is generally a system of units of measurement devised around seven base units and the convenience of the number ten. The older metric system included several groups of units...
(SI) metric system.
The government of the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
resumed using the traditional system until 1984, when it adopted the SI system. The SI system became the national standard in 1987.
Length
Traditional units of length include the chiChi (unit)
The chi is a traditional Chinese unit of length, approximately equal to one foot. Its length is derived from the length of human forearm and has first appeared during the Shang Dynasty approximately 3000 years ago. Since then it has spread to and adopted by other East Asian cultures, such as...
(尺), bu
BU
BU may stand for:* Backup* Bus Interface Unit, also called BIU* Brabender Units, used in flour anaylsis* Bethesda unit, a measure of inhibitor activity relating to a coagulation factor...
(步), and li (里). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 bu has consisted of either 5 or 6 chi, while 1 li has consisted of 300 or 360 bu.
| dynasty | chi | bu | li | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| = 5 chi | = 6 chi | = 300 bu | = 360 bu | ||
| Shang | 0.1675 | 1.0050 | 301.50 | ||
| 0.1690 | 1.0140 | 304.20 | |||
| Zhou | 0.1990 | 1.1940 | 358.20 | ||
| Eastern Zhou | 0.2200 | 1.3200 | 396.00 | ||
| 0.2270 | 1.3620 | 408.60 | |||
| 0.2310 | 1.3860 | 415.80 | |||
| Qin | 0.2310 | 1.3860 | 415.80 | ||
| Han | 0.2310 | 1.3860 | 415.80 | ||
| 600 CE | 0.2550 | 1.5300 | 459.00 | ||
| Tang | 0.2465 | 1.2325 | 369.75 | 443.70 | |
| 0.2955 | 1.4775 | 443.25 | 531.90 | ||
| Song | 0.2700 | 1.3500 | 405.00 | 486.00 | |
| Northern Song | 0.3080 | 1.5400 | 462.00 | 554.40 | |
| Ming | 0.3008–0.3190 | 1.5040–1.5950 | 451.20–478.50 | 541.44–574.20 | |
| Qing | 0.3080–0.3352 | 1.5400–1.6760 | 462.00–503.89 | 554.40–603.46 | |
Modern Chinese units
All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.Length
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hū | 忽 | 1/1 000 000 | ⅓ µm | ||
| sī | 丝 | 1/100 000 | 3⅓ µm | ||
| háo | 毫 | 1/10 000 | 33⅓ µm | ||
| lí | 市厘 | 1/1000 | ⅓ mm | ||
| fēn | 市分 | 1/100 | 3⅓ mm | ~0.1312 in | |
| cùn | 市寸 | 1/10 | 3⅓ cm | ~1.312 in | |
| chǐ | 市尺 | 1 | 33⅓ cm | ~1.094 ft | Chinese foot |
| bù | 步 | 5 | 1⅔ m | ~1.823 yd | Chinese pace |
| zhàng Zhàng The zhàng is a customary Chinese unit of length equal to 10 chǐ. One zhàng is approximately 3.58 metres, or 3.645 yards. China standardized the length of the zhàng in the 19th century for purposes of trade with nations of Western Europe.... |
市丈 | 10 | 3⅓ m | ~3.645 yd | |
| yǐn | 引 | 100 | 33⅓ m | ~36.45 yd | |
| lǐ | 市里 | 1500 | 500 m | ~546.8 yd | this li is not the small li above, which has a different character Chinese character Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and Japanese , less frequently Korean , formerly Vietnamese , or other languages... and tone |
Hong Kong length units
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fen | 分 | 1/100 | ~3.715 mm | ~0.1463 in | |
| tsun | 寸 | 1/10 | ~3.715 cm | ~1.463 in | |
| chek | 尺 | 1 | ~37.15 cm | ~1.219 ft | Hong Kong foot Exactly 0.371475 metres |
Area
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| lí | 市厘 | 1 | 6 m² | ~7.973 sq yd | |
| fēn | 市分 | 10 | 66 m² | ~79.73 sq yd | 10 li |
| mǔ | 市亩, 畝 |
100 | 666 m² | ~797.3 sq yd, or ~0.1647 acres |
10 fen, or 60 zhang² |
| shí | (市)石 | 1,000 | 6,666 m² | ~1.647 acres | 10 mu |
| qǐng | 市顷 | 10,000 | 6 Ha | ~16.47 acres | 10 shí or 100 mǔ |
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fāng cùn | 方寸 | 11 cm² | ~1.722 sq in | 100 fen² | |
| fāng chǐ | 方尺 | 1 | m² | ~172.2 sq in, or ~1.196 sq ft |
100 cun² |
| fāng zhang | 方丈 | 100 | 11 m² | ~119.6 sq ft, or ~13.29 sq yd |
100 chi² |
Volume
These units are used to measure cereal grains.| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | US dry value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cuō | 撮 | 1/1000 | 1 ml | |||
| sháo | 勺 | 1/100 | 10 ml | ~0.6102 cu in | ||
| gě | 合 | 1/10 | 100 ml | ~0.1816 pints | ~6.102 cu in | |
| shēng | 市升 | 1 | 1 L Litre pic|200px|right|thumb|One litre is equivalent to this cubeEach side is 10 cm1 litre water = 1 kilogram water The litre is a metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre , to 1,000 cubic centimetres , and to 1/1,000 cubic metre... |
~1.816 pints | ~61.02 cu in | |
| dǒu | 市斗 | 10 | 10 L | ~18.16 pints, or ~2.27 gallons |
~610.2 cu in, or ~0.3531 cu ft |
|
| dàn | 市石 | 100 | 100 L | ~22.7 gallons | ~3.531 cu ft |
Mass
These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver. The decimal system has not been fully adopted by Chinese citizens.| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hū | 忽 | 1/10 000 000 | 50 µg | ||
| sī | 絲 | 1/1000 000 | 500 µg | ||
| háo | 毫 | 1/100 000 | 5 mg | ||
| lí Cash (mass) Cash or li is a traditional Chinese unit of weight.The terms "cash" or "le" were documented to have been used by British explorers in the 1830s when trading in Qing territories of China.... |
市厘 | 1/10 000 | 50 mg | cash Cash (mass) Cash or li is a traditional Chinese unit of weight.The terms "cash" or "le" were documented to have been used by British explorers in the 1830s when trading in Qing territories of China.... |
|
| fēn Candareen A candareen is a traditional measurement of weight in East Asia. It is equal to 10 cash and is 1/10 of a mace. It is approximately 378 milligrams. A troy candareen is approximately 374 milligrams.... |
市分 | 1/1000 | 500 mg | ~0.2822 dr | candareen Candareen A candareen is a traditional measurement of weight in East Asia. It is equal to 10 cash and is 1/10 of a mace. It is approximately 378 milligrams. A troy candareen is approximately 374 milligrams.... |
| qián Mace (measurement) A mace is a traditional Chinese measurement of weight in East Asia that was also used as a currency denomination. It is equal to 10 candareens and is of a tael or approximately 3.78 grams. A troy candareen is approximately 3.74 grams. In Hong Kong, one mace is 3.779936375 gramme... |
市钱 | 1/100 | 5 g | ~2.822 dr | mace Mace (measurement) A mace is a traditional Chinese measurement of weight in East Asia that was also used as a currency denomination. It is equal to 10 candareens and is of a tael or approximately 3.78 grams. A troy candareen is approximately 3.74 grams. In Hong Kong, one mace is 3.779936375 gramme... |
| liǎng Tael Tael can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights and currency.... |
市两 | 1/10 | 50 g | ~1.764 oz | tael Tael Tael can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights and currency.... or Chinese ounce Ounce The ounce is a unit of mass with several definitions, the most commonly used of which are equal to approximately 28 grams. The ounce is used in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems... |
| jīn Catty The catty , symbol 斤, is a traditional Chinese unit of mass used across East and Southeast Asia, notably for weighing food and other groceries in some wet markets, street markets, and shops. Related units include the picul, equal to 100 catties, and the tael, which is of a catty. A stone is a... |
市斤 | 1 | 500 g | ~1.102 lb | catty Catty The catty , symbol 斤, is a traditional Chinese unit of mass used across East and Southeast Asia, notably for weighing food and other groceries in some wet markets, street markets, and shops. Related units include the picul, equal to 100 catties, and the tael, which is of a catty. A stone is a... or Chinese pound Pound (mass) The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in the Imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement... formerly 16 liang = 1 jin = 604.79 g |
| dàn | 市担 / 擔 | 100 | 50 kg | ~110.2 lb | picul or Chinese hundredweight Hundredweight The hundredweight or centum weight is a unit of mass defined in terms of the pound . The definition used in Britain differs from that used in North America. The two are distinguished by the terms long hundredweight and short hundredweight:* The long hundredweight is defined as 112 lb, which... |
Hong Kong mass units
(Transcription is in JyutpingJyutping
Jyutping is a romanization system for Cantonese developed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong in 1993. Its formal name is The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Cantonese Romanization Scheme...
.)
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| candareen Candareen A candareen is a traditional measurement of weight in East Asia. It is equal to 10 cash and is 1/10 of a mace. It is approximately 378 milligrams. A troy candareen is approximately 374 milligrams.... |
分 (fan1) | 1/1600 | ~378 mg | ~0.2133 dr | |
| mace | 錢 (cin4) | 1/160 | ~3.78 g | ~2.133 dr | |
| tael Tael Tael can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights and currency.... |
両 (loeng2) | 1/16 | ~37.8 g | ~1.333 oz | Exactly 37.799 363 75 g |
| catty Catty The catty , symbol 斤, is a traditional Chinese unit of mass used across East and Southeast Asia, notably for weighing food and other groceries in some wet markets, street markets, and shops. Related units include the picul, equal to 100 catties, and the tael, which is of a catty. A stone is a... |
斤 (gan1) | 1 | ~604.8 g | ~1.333 lb | Exactly 0.604 789 82 kg |
| picul | 担 (daam3) | 100 | ~60.48 kg | ~133.3 lb |
Hong Kong Troy units
These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| candareen troy | 金衡分 | 1/100 | ~374.3 mg | ~0.2112 dr | |
| mace troy | 金衡錢 | 1/10 | ~3.743 g | ~2.112 dr | |
| tael troy | 金衡両 | 1 | ~37.43 g | ~1.32 oz | Exactly 37.429 grams |
Time
| Unit | Hanzi | Relative value | Western value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miǎo | 秒 | 1 second Second The second is a unit of measurement of time, and is the International System of Units base unit of time. It may be measured using a clock.... |
||
| old fēn | 分 | 1/60 kè Ke (unit) The ke is a traditional Chinese unit of decimal time lasting approximately a quarter of a western hour. Traditionally the ke divides a day into 100 equal intervals of 14.4 minutes . The ke is equivalent to the centiday , a non-SI prefixed unit... |
15 seconds | No longer in common usage |
| fēn | 分 | 1 minute Minute A minute is a unit of measurement of time or of angle. The minute is a unit of time equal to 1/60th of an hour or 60 seconds. In the UTC time scale, a minute on rare occasions has 59 or 61 seconds; see leap second. The minute is not an SI unit; however, it is accepted for use with SI units... |
||
| zi | 字 | 5 minutes | Used mostly in dialogue, since saying 'minutes' implies more accuracy and usually one syllable longer. | |
| kè Ke (unit) The ke is a traditional Chinese unit of decimal time lasting approximately a quarter of a western hour. Traditionally the ke divides a day into 100 equal intervals of 14.4 minutes . The ke is equivalent to the centiday , a non-SI prefixed unit... |
刻 | 60 old fēn | 15 minutes | Historically this had been defined as 1/96, 1/100, 1/108, or 1/120 of a day. The value here is the modern conventional value (1/96 day). |
| xiǎoshí | 小时 | 4 kè | 1 hour Hour The hour is a unit of measurement of time. In modern usage, an hour comprises 60 minutes, or 3,600 seconds... |
|
| shíchén | 时辰 | 8 kè | 2 hours | No longer in common use; retains religious, ceremonial and traditional usage. (Mostly used in religious purposes.) |
| shí | 时 | 10 kè | 2.5 hours | No longer in common use; retains religious, ceremonial and traditional usage. (Mostly used in religious purposes.) |
| rì, or tiān |
日, or 天 |
12 shíchén | 24 hours |
Since 1645 (except for 1665–1669), the above equivalents have been true. Except for several short periods of a few years each, before 1645 (before the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
) the following were true
1 rì := 12 shíchén = 10 shí = 100 kè, and
1 shíchén := 8 1/3 kè = 8 kè 20 fēn.
Historiography
As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. Up to the 1980s or so, the book by Wu Chenglou (吳承洛), Zhongguo dulianghengshi (中國度量衡史), first printed in 1937 and republished/revised a few times since (1957, 1993), was often used as reference. It relies however mostly on literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries. From this latter body of work, an abridged Chinese-English overview book appeared in 2005. Alas, no comprehensive text appears to exist in English. A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2004 by Theobald, Vogel, et al.; for a shorter list see Wilkinson's Chinese history: a manual (2000).See also
- Earthly BranchesEarthly BranchesThe Earthly Branches provide one Chinese system for reckoning time.This system was built from observations of the orbit of Jupiter. Chinese astronomers divided the celestial circle into 12 sections to follow the orbit of Suìxīng . Astronomers rounded the orbit of Suixing to 12 years...
- History of measurementHistory of measurementUnits of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for numerous tasks such as: constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials....
- Systems of measurementSystems of measurementA system of measurement is a set of units which can be used to specify anything which can be measured and were historically important, regulated and defined because of trade and internal commerce...
- Units of measure
- Chinese numbers
- Chinese classifier
- Chemical elements in East Asian languages