Chinese archery
Encyclopedia
philosophy: archery was one of the Six Noble Arts of the Zhou dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(1146–256 BCE); archery skill was a virtue for Chinese emperors; Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
himself was an archery teacher; and Lie Zi
Lie Yukou
Lie Yukou is considered the author of the Daoist book Liezi, which uses his honorific name Liezi . The second Chinese character in Yukou is written kou 寇 "bandit; enemy"; the first is written yu 圄 "imprison", yu 禦 "resist; ward off", or occasionally yu 御 "drive ; ride ; control" Lie Yukou is...
(a Daoist philosopher) was an avid archer. Because the cultures associated with Chinese society spanned a wide geography and time range, the techniques and equipment associated with Chinese archery are
diverse. The improvement of firearms and other circumstances of 20th century China led to the demise of archery as a military and ritual practice, and for much of the 20th century only one traditional bow and arrow workshop remained. However, in the beginning of the 21st century, there has been revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows, as well as practice technique in the traditional Chinese style.
Use and Practice
In historical times, Chinese people used archery for hunting, sport, rituals, examinations, and warfare.Warfare
China has a long history of mounted archeryMounted archery
A horse archer, horsed archer, or mounted archer is a cavalryman armed with a bow, able to shoot while riding from horseback. Archery has occasionally been used from the backs of other riding animals...
(shooting on horseback). Prior to the Warring States period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
(475–221 BCE), shooting from chariot was the primary form of battlefield archery. A typical arrangement was that each chariot would carry one driver, one halberder, and one archer. Eventually, horseback archery replaced chariot archery during the Warring States period. The earliest recorded use of mounted archery by Han Chinese occurred with the reforms of King Wuling of Zhao
King Wuling of Zhao
King Wuling of Zhao reigned in the State of Zhao during the Warring States Period of Chinese history...
in 307 BCE. Despite opposition from his nobles, Zhao Wuling's military reforms included the adoption of archery tactics of the bordering Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
tribes, which meant shooting from horseback and eschewing Han robes in favor of nomadic-style jodhpurs
Jodhpurs
Jodhpurs in their modern form are tight-fitting trousers that reach to the ankle, where they end in a snug cuff, and are worn primarily for horse riding. The term is also used incorrectly as slang for a type of short riding boot, also called a paddock boot or a jodhpur boot, because they are worn...
.
For infantry, the preferred projectile weapon was the crossbow
Crossbow
A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts or quarrels. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a torsion engine resembling a crossbow in appearance.Historically, crossbows played a...
, because shooting one required less training than shooting a bow. As early as 600 BCE, Chinese crossbows employed sophisticated bronze trigger mechanisms, which allowed for very high draw weights. However, crossbow trigger mechanisms reverted to simpler designs during the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
(1368–1644 CE), presumably because the skill of constructing bronze trigger mechanisms was lost during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
(1271–1368 CE). Nonetheless, infantry archery using the bow and arrow still served important functions in training as well as naval battles.
Ritual and examination
In the Zhou dynastyZhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(1146–256 BCE), nobles regularly held archery rituals which symbolized and reinforced order within the aristocratic hierarchy. The typical arrangement involved pairs of archers shooting at a target in a pavilion, accompanied by ceremonial music and wine. In these rituals, shooting with proper form and conduct was often more important than simply hitting the target. Ritual archery served as a counterpoint to the typical portrayal of archers, who were often skillful but brash. Confucius himself was an archery teacher, and his own view on archery and archery rituals was that "A refined person has no use for competitiveness. Yet if he cannot avoid it, then let him compete through archery!"
Although civil archery rituals fell out of favor after the Zhou dynasty, examinations inspired by the Zhou-era rituals became a regular part of the military syllabus in later dynasties such as the Han
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, Tang
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
, Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. These exams provided merit-based means of selecting military officials. In addition to archery on foot, the examinations also featured mounted archery, as well as strength testing with specially-designed strength testing bows.
Hunting
Hunting was an important discipline in Chinese archery, and scenes of huntingusing horseback archery feature prominently in Chinese artwork.
Aside from using normal bows and arrows, two distinct subgenres of hunting
archery emerged: fowling with a pellet bow, and waterfowling with
a tethered arrow. Shooting with a pellet bow involved using a light bow with a
pouch on the bowstring designed to shoot a stone pellet. The discipline of
shooting the pellet bow was allegedly the precursor to shooting with the bow and
arrow, and the practice of pellet shooting persisted for many centuries. By
contrast, hunting with a tethered arrow (which was meant to ensnare rather
than pierce the target) was featured in early paintings, but seemed to have
died out before the Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
(618–907 CE).
Decline
In contrast to Korean and Japanese archery (whose traditions have been preserved through direct transmission), the circumstances of 19th and 20th century China made it difficult for Chinese archery traditions to be directly transmitted to the present day.Military use of firearms
History of firearms
Gunpowder was invented in the 9th century and firearms in the 12th century in China. These inventions were later transmitted to the Middle East and to Europe.-Firearms in China:...
began in the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
(1368–1644 CE), and general use of gunpowder weapons as early as the Song dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
(960–1279 CE). Despite this adoption, bows and crossbows had remained an integral part of the military arsenal because of the slow firing rate and lack of reliability in early firearms. This situation changed near the end of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911 CE), when the availability of reliable firearms made archery less effective as a military weapon. As such, the Qing Emperor Guang Xu abolished archery from the military exam syllabus in 1901.
Between the collapse of Imperial China
Imperial China
Imperial China may refer to:* Imperial era of Chinese history , divided into three major periods:** Early Imperial China** Mid-Imperial China** Late Imperial China...
in 1911 and beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
(1937–1945), there was a short-lived effort to revive traditional archery practice. After World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, traditional bow makers were able to continue their craft until the Cultural Revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
(1966–1976), when circumstances forced workshops such as Ju Yuan Hao to suspend the manufacture of traditional Chinese bows.
Modern reconstruction and revival
In 1998, Ju Yuan Hao resumed bow making and until recently was the only active workshop constructing bows and arrows in the traditional Chinese style.However, with the dedicated efforts of craftsmen, researchers, promoters and
enthusiasts, the practice of traditional Chinese archery has been experiencing
a revival in the 21st century. Starting in 2009, they have established an annual Chinese Traditional Archery Seminar. Through new understanding and reconstruction
of these archery practices, their goal is to create a new living tradition for
Chinese archery.
Technique
Many variations in archery technique evolved throughout Chinese history, so itis difficult to completely specify a canonical Chinese style. The Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) had at least 7 archery manuals in circulation (including a manual by General Li Guang
Li Guang
Lĭ Guăng , born in Tianshui, Gansu, was a famous general of the Han Dynasty. Nicknamed The Flying General by his Xiongnu enemies , he fought primarily in the campaigns against the Xiongnu peoples to the north of Han China...
), and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE) had at least 14 different schools of archery and crossbow theory. The commonality among all these styles is that they placed great emphasis on mental focus and concentration.
The style of draw that is most commonly associated with Chinese archery is the thumb draw, which was also the predominant draw method for other Asian peoples such as the Mongolians, Tibetans, Japanese,
Koreans, Indians, Turks and Persians. However, during earlier periods of Chinese history (e.g., Zhou dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
), the 3-finger draw was common at the same time that the thumb draw was popular.
Furthermore, the various styles of Chinese archery offered
different advice on other aspects of shooting technique. For example: how to position the feet, what height to anchor
the arrow, how to position the bow hand finger, whether to apply tension to
the bow hand, whether to let the bow spin in the bow hand after release, as well
as whether to extend the draw arm after release.
In addition, the various Chinese styles used a variety of draw lengths: literature, art and photographs depict Chinese archers placing their draw hand near their front shoulder, near their cheek, near their ear, or past their face.
The dichotomy between ritual/examination archery technique
and battlefield archery technique provides a significant example of the contrasts between different Chinese styles. Wang Ju, an author from the Tang dynasty, favored a ritual/examination style which involved a post-release
follow through where the bow spins in the bow hand, and the draw arm
extends straight back; by contrast, certain authors such as Zeng Gongliang
Zeng Gongliang
Zeng Gongliang was a Chinese scholar of the Song Dynasty who helped write the Wujing Zongyao....
(Song dynasty), Li Chengfen (who was
influenced by Ming dynasty generals Yu Dayou
Yu Dayou
Yú Dàyóu was a Chinese general during the Ming Dynasty, best known for the suppression of wokou piracy along China's southeastern coast....
and Qi Jiguang
Qi Jiguang
Qi Jiguang was a Chinese military general and national hero during the Ming Dynasty. He was best remembered for his courage and leadership in the fight against Japanese pirates along the east coast of China, as well as his reinforcement work on the Great Wall of China.-Early life:Qi Jiguang was...
) and Gao Ying (Ming dynasty)
eschewed aesthetic elements (such as Wang Ju's follow through) in favor of
developing a more practical technique.
Bows
Historical sources and archaeological evidence suggest that a variety ofhistorical bow types existed in the area of present day China. Most varieties of Chinese bows were horn bows (horn-wood-sinew
composites), but longbows and wood composites were also in use.
Modern reproductions of Chinese-style bows have adopted shapes inspired by
historical designs. But in addition to using traditional construction methods
(such as horn-wood-sinew composites), modern craftsmen and manufacturers have
used modern materials such as fiberglass
Fiberglass
Glass fiber is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibers of glass.Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling...
, carbon fiber
Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber, alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material consisting of fibers about 5–10 μm in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber...
and
fiber-reinforced plastic.
The following sections highlight the current understanding on some of the
major design categories for Chinese bows.
Scythian-style horn bows
Horn bows of this style tended to be asymmetric and adopted a distinct, curvydeflex-reflex profile (colloquially known as the "cupid bow" shape).
Archaeologists have excavated examples of Scythian-style bows dating to the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BCE) from the
Subeixi and Yanghai sites.
Longbows (self bows)
Longbows and wood composite bows were popular in southern China, where thehumid climate made horn bows more difficult to use. An excavated example of a
Chinese longbow was dated to approximately the Warring States - Western Han Dynasty period (475 BCE–9 CE), and its dimensions were 1.59 m long, 3.4 cm wide and 1.4 cm thick.
Wood composite bows
Wood composite bows were popular in southern China because of the humidclimate. Based on excavated bows from the Spring and Autumn period
through the Han dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(770 BCE–220 CE), the typical construction of a Chinese wood
composite was a reflex bow made from multiple layers of wood (such as
bamboo
Bamboo
Bamboo is a group of perennial evergreens in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family....
or mulberry
Mulberry
Morus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae. The 10–16 species of deciduous trees it contains are commonly known as Mulberries....
), wrapped in silk and lacquered. The
typical length of such bows was 1.2–1.5 meters.
Long-siyah horn bows
Bows with long siyahs were popular in China from the Han dynastyHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
through
the Yuan dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
(206 BCE–1368 CE). (Siyahs are the non-bending end sections of Asiatic
composite bows.) The design shares similarities with Hunnic horn bows.
The Niya, Gansu and Khotan bows are examples of long-siyah bows
dating from the late Han to Jin
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty may refer to:* Jin Dynasty , Chinese dynasty, subdivided into the Western and Eastern Jin periods* Later Jin Dynasty , one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China.* Jin Dynasty , a Jurchen kingdom in northern China* Later Jīn Dynasty, or...
time
period (about 200–300 CE).
During this period, the siyahs tended to be long and thin, while the working
sections of the limb were short and broad. However, during the Yuan period,
long-siyah bows tended to have heavier siyahs and narrower working limbs than
their Han/Jin-era predecessors.
Ming dynasty horn bows
Turkish bowTurkish bow
The Turkish bow is a recurved composite bow used in the Ottoman Empire.The construction was that of the classic Asiatic composite bow, with a wooden core , animal horn on the side facing the archer, and sinew on the back. Animal glue held it together...
makers who migrated to China during the Yuan dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
(1271–1368 CE)
substantially influenced Chinese bow design. As a result, short bow designs
became popular during the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
(1368–1644 CE). Wubei Zhi (Chapter 102) describes several bow styles popular during the Ming
dynasty: in the North, the short-siyah bow, grooved-siyah bow, grooved-bridge bow,
and long-siyah bow; in the South, the Chenzhou bow, short-siyah bow, as well as
bamboo composite bows finished with lacquer; the Kaiyuan bow was used in all parts of Ming China. The small-siyah bow (Chinese: 小稍弓) differed from earlier Chinese
designs in that its siyahs were short and set at an angle forward of
the string when at rest. Its design is possibly related to the
Korean horn bow
Gungdo
The Korean Bow is a water buffalo horn-based composite reflex bow, standardized about 1900 AD from the variety of such weapons in earlier use...
. The Kaiyuan bow (Chinese: 开元弓) was a small-to-medium size bow which
featured long siyahs, and it was the bow of choice for high-ranking
officers.
Wu Bei Yao Lue (Chapter 4), another classic Ming dynasty military manual, depicts a set of bows that is distinct from those discussed in Wubei Zhi. These include the general-purpose bow, the big-siyah bow (which was used for infantry as well as by cavalry), and the Taiping village bow (which resembled a Korean 高丽 bow design and was favored in northern and southern China for its superior craftsmanship).
Although Ming bows have been depicted in literature and art, archaeologists have yet to recover an original Ming bow sample.
Qing dynasty horn bows
The Manchurian bow design became popular in China during the Qing dynastyQing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(1644–1911 CE).
In contrast to other Asiatic composite designs, Qing horn bows were large (up
to 1.7 m long when strung) and featured long, heavy siyahs (up to 35 cm in
length) with prominent string bridges. The general principle behind this
design was to trade arrow speed in favor of stability and the ability to
efficiently launch long and heavy arrows, which sometimes exceeded one meter
in length.
The Manchurian bow has influenced modern-day Tibetan and Mongolian bow
designs, which are shorter versions of the Qing horn bow.
Draw Hand Protection
Because Chinese archers typically used the thumb draw, they often required thumb protection in the form of a ring or leather guard. In historical times, thumb ring materials included jade, metal, ivory, horn and bone (though specimens made of organic materials have been difficult to recover). Because of the importance of archery, the significance of thumb rings extended beyond the battlefield: rings were commonly worn as status symbols, and up until the end of the Han dynasty (220 CE), they were also sacrificial burial objects. Although the archaeological record for Chinese thumb protection is incomplete, the designs of excavated and antique rings suggest that a variety of designs became popular over time.The earliest excavated Chinese thumb ring came from the Shang dynasty
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
tomb of Fu Hao
Fu Hao
Fu Hao , posthumously Mu Xin , was one of the many wives of King Wu Ding of the Shang Dynasty and, unusually for that time, also served as a military general and high priestess....
(who died circa 1200 BCE). The ring was a slanted cylinder where the front, which contained a groove for holding the bow string, was higher than the back. From the Warring States period through the Han dynasty (475 BCE–220 CE), excavated rings typically had a lipped design with a distinctive spur on the side (there exist several theories about the spur's function). Rings from the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) were round cylinders or D-shaped cylinders.
Apart from the above examples, describing thumb ring designs from other time periods is difficult. For example, thumb rings are absent from the archaeological record between the Han and Ming dynasties (220-1368 CE) even though contemporary literature (such as Wang Ju's archery manual from the Tang dynasty) indicates that Chinese archers were still using the thumb draw. Moreover, evidence suggests a variety of ring shapes were popular during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE). Li Chengfen's archery manual advocated using rings with oval openings, and illustrations of Gao Ying's archery manual depicted an archer using a lipped ring. To date, however, the only recovered Ming dynasty rings have been cylindrical rings of a different design than Qing thumb rings.
To date, there are very few (if any) excavated examples of draw hand protection for Chinese archers using the 3-finger draw. However, Xin Ding San Li Tu (a Song dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
illustrated guide to the Zhou dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
archery rituals) depicts a tab made of red reed (called Zhu Ji San, 朱极三) for protecting the index, middle and ring fingers while pulling the string.
Legends
Legends about archery permeate Chinese culture. An early tale discusses how the Yellow EmperorYellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor or Huangdi1 is a legendary Chinese sovereign and culture hero, included among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he reigned from 2697–2597 or 2696–2598 BC...
, the legendary ancestor of the Chinese people, invented the bow and arrow:
Another myth was Hou Yi shooting the sun. Other myths also feature Hou Yi battling an assortment of monsters (which were metaphors for natural disasters) using his cinnabar-red bow.