Bechukotai
Encyclopedia
Bechukotai, Bechukosai, or B'hukkothai (בְּחֻקֹּתַי — Hebrew
for “by my decrees,” the second word, and the first distinctive word, in the parshah) is the 33rd weekly Torah portion ("parshah") in the annual Jewish
cycle of Torah reading
and the 10th and last in the book of Leviticus
. It constitutes Jews in the Diaspora
generally read it in May.
The lunisolar
Hebrew calendar
contains up to 55 week
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2011, 2014, and 2016), parshah Bechukotai is read separately. In common years (for example, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018), parshah Bechukotai is combined with the previous parshah, Behar
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
promised that if the Israelite
s followed God’s law
s, God would bless Israel
with rain
s in their season, abundant harvest
s, peace
, victory over enemies, fertility, and God’s presence. But if the Israelites did not observe God’s commandments
, God would wreak upon Israel misery, consumption, fever, stolen harvests, defeat by enemies, poor harvests, attacks of wild beasts, pestilence, famine, desolation, and timidity.
Those who survived would be removed to the land of their enemies, where they would become heartsick over their iniquity, confess their sin
, and atone. God promised then to remember God’s covenants with Jacob
, Isaac
, Abraham
, and the ancients whom God freed
from Egypt
.
to instruct the Israelites that when anyone vow
ed to offer God the value of a human being, the following scale would apply:
But if a vower could not afford the payment, the vower was to appear before the priest
, and the priest was to assess the vower according to what the vower could afford.
If the vow concerned an animal that could be brought as an offering
, the animal was to be holy
, and one could not exchange another for it, and if one did substitute one animal for another, the thing vowed and its substitute were both to be holy. If the vow concerned an unclean animal that could not be brought as an offering, the vower was to present the animal to the priest, the priest was to assess it, and if the vower wished to redeem it, the vower was to add one-fifth to its assessment. No firstling of a clean animal could be consecrated, for it already belonged to God. But a firstling of an unclean animal could be redeemed at its assessment plus one-fifth, and if not redeemed, was to be sold at its assessment.
If one consecrated a house to God, the priest was to assess it, and if the vower wished to redeem it, the vower was to add one-fifth to the assessment. If one consecrated to God land of one’s ancestral holding, the priest was to assess it in accordance with its seed requirement. If the vower consecrated the land after the jubilee
year, the priest was to compute the price according to the years left until the next jubilee year, and reduce the assessment accordingly. If the vower wished to redeem the land, the vower was to add one-fifth to the assessment and retain title, but if the vower did not redeem the land and the land was sold, it was no longer to be redeemable, and at the jubilee the land was to become the priest’s holding. If one consecrated land that one purchased (not land of ancestral holding), the priest was to compute the assessment up to the jubilee year, the vower was to pay the assessment as of that day, and in the jubilee the land was to revert to the person whose ancestral holding the land was.
But nothing that one had proscribed for God (subjected to cherem
) could be sold or redeemed, and no human being proscribed could be ransomed, but he was to be put to death.
All tithes from crops were to be God’s, and if one wished to redeem any of the tithes, the tither was to add one-fifth to them. Every tenth head of livestock was to be holy to God, and the owner was not to choose among good or bad when counting off the tithe.
make clear that having children is a blessing from God; Genesis and 1 Samuel
characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and and threaten childlessness as a punishment.
asked whether the words “If you walk in My statutes” in might refer to observing religious duties. But the Sifra noted that the continuation of says, “and keep My commandments, and do them,” and that must cover observing religious duties. Thus the Sifra concluded that the words “If you walk in My statutes” must mean laboring in the Torah. (Sifra Bechukotai 260:1:2.)
The Mishnah
taught that they read the blessings and curses of and on public fast days. The Mishnah taught that they did not interrupt the reading of the curses, but had one person read them all. (Mishnah Megillah 3:6.)
A Baraita
taught that several of the curses in result from particular transgressions. Rabbi Eleazar the son of Rabbi Judah read the word “behalah” (“terror”) in as “be-challah” (“on account of challah
”) to interpret to teach that as punishment for the neglect of the challah tithe
, God fails to bless what is stored, a curse is sent on prices, and people sow seed but others eat the harvest. The Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for vain oaths, false oaths, desecration of God’s Name, and desecration of the Sabbath, wild beasts multiply, domestic animals cease, population decreases, and roads become desolate. Using Jeremiah
to equate the word “covenant” with the Torah, the Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for delaying judgment, perverting judgment, corrupting judgment, and neglecting Torah, sword and spoil increase, pestilence and famine come, people eat and are not satisfied, and people eat their scarce bread by weight. And the Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for idolatry and failure to observe the Sabbatical (Shmita) and Jubilee
(Yovel) years, the Jews are exiled and others come to dwell in their land. (Babylonian Talmud
Shabbat 32b–33a.)
Just as attributes famine to sin, the Mishnah taught that a famine from drought comes when some of the people do not give tithes, a famine from tumult and drought comes when all decide not to give tithes, and a famine of annihilation comes when they decide (in addition) not to set apart the dough offering. Just as attributes the sword to sin, the Mishnah taught that the sword comes to the world for the delay of justice, for the perversion of justice, and because of those who interpret the Torah counter to the accepted law. And just as attributes pestilence to sin, the Mishnah taught that pestilence comes to the world for failure to execute judgment in capital crimes and for violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year. (Mishnah Avot 5:8.)
The Mishnah taught that the coming of the sword, as in was one of several afflictions for which they sounded the ram’s horn (shofar
) in alarm in every locale, because it is an affliction that spreads. (Mishnah Taanit 3:5; Babylonian Talmud Taanit 19a.)
The Gemara
reconciled apparently discordant verses touching on vicarious responsibility. The Gemara noted that states: “The fathers shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin,” but (20:5 in NJPS) says: “visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children.” The Gemara cited a Baraita that interpreted the words “the iniquities of their fathers shall they pine away with them” in to teach that God punishes children only when they follow their parents’ sins. The Gemara then questioned whether the words “they shall stumble one upon another” in do not teach that one will stumble through the sin of the other, that all are held responsible for one another. The Gemara answered that the vicarious responsibility of which speaks is limited to those who have the power to restrain their fellow from evil but do not do so. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b.)
A midrash
noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions Abraham before Isaac, and Isaac before Jacob. (E.g., 15–16; 8; 27; (English 29:13); ) But mentions Jacob before Isaac, and Isaac before Abraham, to teach that the three were on a par. (Genesis Rabba
h 1:15.)
In the heart is humbled. A midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks (Ecclesiastes
), sees , hears (1 Kings
), walks , falls , stands (Ezekiel
), rejoices , cries (Lamentations
), is comforted (Isaiah
), is troubled , becomes hardened , grows faint , grieves , fears , can be broken , becomes proud , rebels , invents , cavils , overflows , devises , desires , goes astray , lusts , is refreshed , can be stolen , is enticed , errs , trembles , is awakened (Song of Songs
), loves , hates , envies , is searched , is rent (Book of Joel
), meditates , is like a fire , is like a stone , turns in repentance , becomes hot , dies , melts (Joshua
), takes in words , is susceptible to fear , gives thanks , covets , becomes hard , makes merry (Judges
), acts deceitfully , speaks from out of itself , loves bribes , writes words , plans , receives commandments , acts with pride (Obadiah
), makes arrangements , and aggrandizes itself . (Ecclesiastes Rabbah
1:36.)
A midrash interpreted the words, “And yet for all that, when they are in the land of their enemies, I will not reject them,” in to teach that the Shekhinah
accompanied Israel into exile. (Exodus Rabbah
23:5.) Samuel of Nehardea
interpreted the words, “I will not reject them, neither will I abhor them, to destroy them utterly, and to break My covenant with them; for I am the Lord their God,” in to teach that God did “not reject” the Jews in the days of the Greeks
, nor “abhor them” in the days of Nebuchadnezzar
, nor “destroy them utterly” in the days of Haman
, nor “break [God’s] covenant with them” in the days of the Persians; “for [God will be] the Lord their God” in the days of Gog and Magog
. Similarly, a Baraitha taught that God did “not reject” them in the days of the Chaldea
ns, for God sent them Daniel
, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah
; God did not “abhor them” in the days of the Greeks, for God sent them Simeon the Righteous
, the Hasmonean
and his sons, and Mattathias
the High Priest
; and God did not “destroy them utterly” in the days of Haman, for God sent them Mordecai
and Esther
; and God did not “break [God’s] covenant with them” in the days of the Persians, for God sent them the house of Rabbi
and the generations of Sages
; “for [God will be] the Lord their God” in the time to come, when no nation or people will be able to subject them. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 11a.)
in the Mishnah, Tosefta
, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of dedicatory vows in (Mishnah Arakhin 1:1–9:8; Tosefta Arakhin 1:1–5:19; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 2a–34a.)
The Mishnah taught that the law of valuation sometimes tended toward leniency, and at other times tended toward stringency. The law valued equally the handsomest and the ugliest men in the country; either one owed 50 selas. (Mishnah Arakhin 3:1; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 13b.)
The Mishnah taught that to secure a vow to the Temple, they seized property from the one who made the vow. (Mishnah Arakhin 5:6; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 21a.) But they let the one who made the vow keep food for 30 days, garments for 12 months, bed and bedding, shoes, and tefillin
. If the one who made the vow was a craftsperson, they left two of every kind of tool. If the one who made the vow was a carpenter, they left two axes and two saws. Rabbi Eliezer
said that if the one who made the vow was a farmer, they left a yoke of oxen. If the one who made the vow was a donkey-driver, they left a donkey. (Mishnah Arakhin 6:3; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 23b.)
Tractate Temurah
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of substituting one sacrifice for another in (Mishnah Temurah 1:1–7:6; Tosefta Temurah 1:1–4:17; Babylonian Talmud Temurah 2a–34a.)
Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai taught that just as the texts “He shall not break his word” in and “Defer not to pay it” in apply to vows, so they also apply to valuations, and thus Moses exhorted the Israelites in “When a man shall clearly utter a vow of persons to the Lord, according to your valuation . . . .” (Leviticus Rabbah
37:2.)
Interpreting the instruction of that “according to the means of him that vowed shall the priest value him,” the Mishnah taught that this was done according to the ability of the one who vowed. The Mishnah taught that if a poor person vowed to give the value of a rich person, the poor person would pay only the valuation for a poor person. But if a rich person vowed to give the value of a poor person, the rich person still had to pay the full value of a rich person. (Mishnah Arakhin 4:1; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 17a.) Citing the Gemara explained that the Merciful One made the obligation dependent upon the means of the one who vowed. (Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 17a.) The Tosefta taught that while the valuation of a rich man was 50 selas as stated in the valuation of a poor man was one sela. (Tosefta Arakhin 1:5.)
, there are 7 positive and 5 negative commandments
in the parshah:
(Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 3:461–517. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1984. ISBN 0-87306-297-3.)
for the parshah is The blessings and curses in are matched by a curse on “the man that trusts in man” in and a blessing on “the man that trusts in the Lord” in
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Hebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
for “by my decrees,” the second word, and the first distinctive word, in the parshah) is the 33rd weekly Torah portion ("parshah") in the annual Jewish
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
cycle of Torah reading
Torah reading
Torah reading is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with special cantillation, and returning the scroll to...
and the 10th and last in the book of Leviticus
Leviticus
The Book of Leviticus is the third book of the Hebrew Bible, and the third of five books of the Torah ....
. It constitutes Jews in the Diaspora
Jewish diaspora
The Jewish diaspora is the English term used to describe the Galut גלות , or 'exile', of the Jews from the region of the Kingdom of Judah and Roman Iudaea and later emigration from wider Eretz Israel....
generally read it in May.
The lunisolar
Lunisolar calendar
A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures whose date indicates both the moon phase and the time of the solar year. If the solar year is defined as a tropical year then a lunisolar calendar will give an indication of the season; if it is taken as a sidereal year then the calendar will...
Hebrew calendar
Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar , or Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits , and daily Psalm reading, among many ceremonial uses...
contains up to 55 week
Week
A week is a time unit equal to seven days.The English word week continues an Old English wice, ultimately from a Common Germanic , from a root "turn, move, change"...
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2011, 2014, and 2016), parshah Bechukotai is read separately. In common years (for example, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018), parshah Bechukotai is combined with the previous parshah, Behar
Behar
Behar, BeHar, Be-har, or B’har is the 32nd weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the ninth in the book of Leviticus...
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
Summary
Blessings and curses
GodNames of God in Judaism
In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title; it represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relationship of God to the Jewish people and to the world. To demonstrate the sacredness of the names of God, and as a means of showing respect and reverence for...
promised that if the Israelite
Israelite
According to the Bible the Israelites were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the monarchic period .The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew ישראל...
s followed God’s law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
s, God would bless Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
with rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
s in their season, abundant harvest
Harvest
Harvest is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper...
s, peace
Peace
Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the...
, victory over enemies, fertility, and God’s presence. But if the Israelites did not observe God’s commandments
Mitzvah
The primary meaning of the Hebrew word refers to precepts and commandments as commanded by God...
, God would wreak upon Israel misery, consumption, fever, stolen harvests, defeat by enemies, poor harvests, attacks of wild beasts, pestilence, famine, desolation, and timidity.
Those who survived would be removed to the land of their enemies, where they would become heartsick over their iniquity, confess their sin
Sin
In religion, sin is the violation or deviation of an eternal divine law or standard. The term sin may also refer to the state of having committed such a violation. Christians believe the moral code of conduct is decreed by God In religion, sin (also called peccancy) is the violation or deviation...
, and atone. God promised then to remember God’s covenants with Jacob
Jacob
Jacob "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel , as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.In the...
, Isaac
Isaac
Isaac as described in the Hebrew Bible, was the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah, and was the father of Jacob and Esau. Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites...
, Abraham
Abraham
Abraham , whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam...
, and the ancients whom God freed
The Exodus
The Exodus is the story of the departure of the Israelites from ancient Egypt described in the Hebrew Bible.Narrowly defined, the term refers only to the departure from Egypt described in the Book of Exodus; more widely, it takes in the subsequent law-givings and wanderings in the wilderness...
from Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
.
Payment of vows
God told MosesMoses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
to instruct the Israelites that when anyone vow
Vow
A vow is a promise or oath.-Marriage vows:Marriage vows are binding promises each partner in a couple makes to the other during a wedding ceremony. Marriage customs have developed over history and keep changing as human society develops...
ed to offer God the value of a human being, the following scale would apply:
- for a man from 20 to 60 years of age, 50 shekelShekelShekel , is any of several ancient units of weight or of currency. The first usage is from Mesopotamia around 3000 BC. Initially, it may have referred to a weight of barley...
s of silverSilverSilver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
, - for a woman from 20 to 60 years, 30 shekels ,
- for a boy from 5 to 20 years, 20 shekels ,
- for a girl from 5 to 20 years, 10 shekels ,
- for a boy from 1 month to 5 years, 5 shekels ,
- for a girl from 1 month to 5 years, 3 shekels ,
- for a man 60 years or over, 15 shekels , and
- for a woman 60 years or over, 10 shekels .
But if a vower could not afford the payment, the vower was to appear before the priest
Kohen
A Kohen is the Hebrew word for priest. Jewish Kohens are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from the Biblical Aaron....
, and the priest was to assess the vower according to what the vower could afford.
If the vow concerned an animal that could be brought as an offering
Korban
The term offering as found in the Hebrew Bible in relation to the worship of Ancient Israel is mainly represented by the Hebrew noun korban whether for an animal or other offering...
, the animal was to be holy
Sacred
Holiness, or sanctity, is in general the state of being holy or sacred...
, and one could not exchange another for it, and if one did substitute one animal for another, the thing vowed and its substitute were both to be holy. If the vow concerned an unclean animal that could not be brought as an offering, the vower was to present the animal to the priest, the priest was to assess it, and if the vower wished to redeem it, the vower was to add one-fifth to its assessment. No firstling of a clean animal could be consecrated, for it already belonged to God. But a firstling of an unclean animal could be redeemed at its assessment plus one-fifth, and if not redeemed, was to be sold at its assessment.
If one consecrated a house to God, the priest was to assess it, and if the vower wished to redeem it, the vower was to add one-fifth to the assessment. If one consecrated to God land of one’s ancestral holding, the priest was to assess it in accordance with its seed requirement. If the vower consecrated the land after the jubilee
Jubilee (Biblical)
The Jubilee year is the year at the end of seven cycles of Sabbatical years , and according to Biblical regulations had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the territory of the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah; there is some debate whether it was the 49th year The Jubilee...
year, the priest was to compute the price according to the years left until the next jubilee year, and reduce the assessment accordingly. If the vower wished to redeem the land, the vower was to add one-fifth to the assessment and retain title, but if the vower did not redeem the land and the land was sold, it was no longer to be redeemable, and at the jubilee the land was to become the priest’s holding. If one consecrated land that one purchased (not land of ancestral holding), the priest was to compute the assessment up to the jubilee year, the vower was to pay the assessment as of that day, and in the jubilee the land was to revert to the person whose ancestral holding the land was.
But nothing that one had proscribed for God (subjected to cherem
Cherem
Cherem , is the highest ecclesiastical censure in the Jewish community. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. It is a form of shunning, and is similar to excommunication in the Catholic Church...
) could be sold or redeemed, and no human being proscribed could be ransomed, but he was to be put to death.
All tithes from crops were to be God’s, and if one wished to redeem any of the tithes, the tither was to add one-fifth to them. Every tenth head of livestock was to be holy to God, and the owner was not to choose among good or bad when counting off the tithe.
Leviticus chapter 26
addresses God’s role in the creation of children. While required a new mother to bring a burnt-offering and a sin-offering, Deuteronomy and PsalmPsalms
The Book of Psalms , commonly referred to simply as Psalms, is a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible...
make clear that having children is a blessing from God; Genesis and 1 Samuel
Books of Samuel
The Books of Samuel in the Jewish bible are part of the Former Prophets, , a theological history of the Israelites affirming and explaining the Torah under the guidance of the prophets.Samuel begins by telling how the prophet Samuel is chosen by...
characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and and threaten childlessness as a punishment.
Leviticus chapter 26
The SifraSifra
Sifra is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah, as appears from Tanḥuma, quoted in Or Zarua, i. 7b. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" , and in two passages also "Sifra debe...
asked whether the words “If you walk in My statutes” in might refer to observing religious duties. But the Sifra noted that the continuation of says, “and keep My commandments, and do them,” and that must cover observing religious duties. Thus the Sifra concluded that the words “If you walk in My statutes” must mean laboring in the Torah. (Sifra Bechukotai 260:1:2.)
Mishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
taught that they read the blessings and curses of and on public fast days. The Mishnah taught that they did not interrupt the reading of the curses, but had one person read them all. (Mishnah Megillah 3:6.)
A Baraita
Baraita
Baraita designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. "Baraita" thus refers to teachings "outside" of the six orders of the Mishnah...
taught that several of the curses in result from particular transgressions. Rabbi Eleazar the son of Rabbi Judah read the word “behalah” (“terror”) in as “be-challah” (“on account of challah
Challah
Challah also khale ,, berches , barkis , bergis , chałka , vánočka , zopf and kitke , is a special braided bread eaten on...
”) to interpret to teach that as punishment for the neglect of the challah tithe
Tithe
A tithe is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash, cheques, or stocks, whereas historically tithes were required and paid in kind, such as agricultural products...
, God fails to bless what is stored, a curse is sent on prices, and people sow seed but others eat the harvest. The Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for vain oaths, false oaths, desecration of God’s Name, and desecration of the Sabbath, wild beasts multiply, domestic animals cease, population decreases, and roads become desolate. Using Jeremiah
Book of Jeremiah
The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve....
to equate the word “covenant” with the Torah, the Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for delaying judgment, perverting judgment, corrupting judgment, and neglecting Torah, sword and spoil increase, pestilence and famine come, people eat and are not satisfied, and people eat their scarce bread by weight. And the Baraita interpreted to teach that as punishment for idolatry and failure to observe the Sabbatical (Shmita) and Jubilee
Jubilee (Biblical)
The Jubilee year is the year at the end of seven cycles of Sabbatical years , and according to Biblical regulations had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the territory of the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah; there is some debate whether it was the 49th year The Jubilee...
(Yovel) years, the Jews are exiled and others come to dwell in their land. (Babylonian Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
Shabbat 32b–33a.)
Just as attributes famine to sin, the Mishnah taught that a famine from drought comes when some of the people do not give tithes, a famine from tumult and drought comes when all decide not to give tithes, and a famine of annihilation comes when they decide (in addition) not to set apart the dough offering. Just as attributes the sword to sin, the Mishnah taught that the sword comes to the world for the delay of justice, for the perversion of justice, and because of those who interpret the Torah counter to the accepted law. And just as attributes pestilence to sin, the Mishnah taught that pestilence comes to the world for failure to execute judgment in capital crimes and for violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year. (Mishnah Avot 5:8.)
The Mishnah taught that the coming of the sword, as in was one of several afflictions for which they sounded the ram’s horn (shofar
Shofar
A shofar is a horn, traditionally that of a ram, used for Jewish religious purposes. Shofar-blowing is incorporated in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.Shofar come in a variety of sizes.- Bible and rabbinic literature :...
) in alarm in every locale, because it is an affliction that spreads. (Mishnah Taanit 3:5; Babylonian Talmud Taanit 19a.)
The Gemara
Gemara
The Gemara is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah. After the Mishnah was published by Rabbi Judah the Prince The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or, less commonly, Gemorra; from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally, "[to] study" or "learning by...
reconciled apparently discordant verses touching on vicarious responsibility. The Gemara noted that states: “The fathers shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin,” but (20:5 in NJPS) says: “visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children.” The Gemara cited a Baraita that interpreted the words “the iniquities of their fathers shall they pine away with them” in to teach that God punishes children only when they follow their parents’ sins. The Gemara then questioned whether the words “they shall stumble one upon another” in do not teach that one will stumble through the sin of the other, that all are held responsible for one another. The Gemara answered that the vicarious responsibility of which speaks is limited to those who have the power to restrain their fellow from evil but do not do so. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 27b.)
A midrash
Midrash
The Hebrew term Midrash is a homiletic method of biblical exegesis. The term also refers to the whole compilation of homiletic teachings on the Bible....
noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions Abraham before Isaac, and Isaac before Jacob. (E.g., 15–16; 8; 27; (English 29:13); ) But mentions Jacob before Isaac, and Isaac before Abraham, to teach that the three were on a par. (Genesis Rabba
Genesis Rabba
Genesis Rabba is a religious text from Judaism's classical period. It is a midrash comprising a collection of ancient rabbinical homiletical interpretations of the Book of Genesis ....
h 1:15.)
In the heart is humbled. A midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks (Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes
The Book of Ecclesiastes, called , is a book of the Hebrew Bible. The English name derives from the Greek translation of the Hebrew title.The main speaker in the book, identified by the name or title Qoheleth , introduces himself as "son of David, king in Jerusalem." The work consists of personal...
), sees , hears (1 Kings
Books of Kings
The Book of Kings presents a narrative history of ancient Israel and Judah from the death of David to the release of his successor Jehoiachin from imprisonment in Babylon, a period of some 400 years...
), walks , falls , stands (Ezekiel
Book of Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel is the third of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the books of Isaiah and Jeremiah and preceding the Book of the Twelve....
), rejoices , cries (Lamentations
Book of Lamentations
The Book of Lamentations ) is a poetic book of the Hebrew Bible composed by the Jewish prophet Jeremiah. It mourns the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple in the 6th Century BCE....
), is comforted (Isaiah
Book of Isaiah
The Book of Isaiah is the first of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, preceding the books of Ezekiel, Jeremiah and the Book of the Twelve...
), is troubled , becomes hardened , grows faint , grieves , fears , can be broken , becomes proud , rebels , invents , cavils , overflows , devises , desires , goes astray , lusts , is refreshed , can be stolen , is enticed , errs , trembles , is awakened (Song of Songs
Song of songs
Song of Songs, also known as the Song of Solomon, is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. It may also refer to:In music:* Song of songs , the debut album by David and the Giants* A generic term for medleysPlays...
), loves , hates , envies , is searched , is rent (Book of Joel
Book of Joel
The Book of Joel is part of the Hebrew Bible. Joel is part of a group of twelve prophetic books known as the Minor Prophets or simply as The Twelve; the distinction 'minor' indicates the short length of the text in relation to the larger prophetic texts known as the "Major Prophets".-Content:After...
), meditates , is like a fire , is like a stone , turns in repentance , becomes hot , dies , melts (Joshua
Book of Joshua
The Book of Joshua is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament. Its 24 chapters tell of the entry of the Israelites into Canaan, their conquest and division of the land under the leadership of Joshua, and of serving God in the land....
), takes in words , is susceptible to fear , gives thanks , covets , becomes hard , makes merry (Judges
Book of Judges
The Book of Judges is the seventh book of the Hebrew bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its title describes its contents: it contains the history of Biblical judges, divinely inspired prophets whose direct knowledge of Yahweh allows them to act as decision-makers for the Israelites, as...
), acts deceitfully , speaks from out of itself , loves bribes , writes words , plans , receives commandments , acts with pride (Obadiah
Book of Obadiah
The canonical Book of Obadiah is an oracle concerning the divine judgment of Edom and the restoration of Israel. The text consists of a single chapter, divided into 21 verses, making it the shortest book in the Hebrew Bible....
), makes arrangements , and aggrandizes itself . (Ecclesiastes Rabbah
Ecclesiastes Rabbah
Ecclesiastes Rabbah or Kohelet Rabbah is an haggadic commentary on Ecclesiastes, included in the collection of the Midrash Rabbot. It follows the Biblical book verse by verse, only a few verses remaining without comment. In the list of the old sedarim for the Bible four sedarim are assigned to...
1:36.)
Shekhinah
Shekinah is the English spelling of a grammatically feminine Hebrew word that means the dwelling or settling, and is used to denote the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, especially in the Temple in Jerusalem.-Etymology:Shekinah is derived...
accompanied Israel into exile. (Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah is the midrash to Exodus, containing in the printed editions 52 parashiyyot. It is not uniform in its composition.- Structure :In parashiyyot i.-xiv...
23:5.) Samuel of Nehardea
Samuel of Nehardea
Samuel of Nehardea or Samuel bar Abba was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an Amora of the first generation; son of Abba bar Abba and head of the Yeshiva at Nehardea. He was a teacher of halakha, judge, physician, and astronomer. He was born about 165 at Nehardea, in Babylonia...
interpreted the words, “I will not reject them, neither will I abhor them, to destroy them utterly, and to break My covenant with them; for I am the Lord their God,” in to teach that God did “not reject” the Jews in the days of the Greeks
Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic period or Hellenistic era describes the time which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was so named by the historian J. G. Droysen. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia...
, nor “abhor them” in the days of Nebuchadnezzar
Nebuchadrezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II was king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who reigned c. 605 BC – 562 BC. According to the Bible, he conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and sent the Jews into exile. He is credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and also known for the destruction...
, nor “destroy them utterly” in the days of Haman
Haman (Bible)
Haman is the main antagonist in the Book of Esther, who, according to Old Testament tradition, was a 5th Century BC noble and vizier of the Persian empire under King Ahasuerus, traditionally identified as Artaxerxes II...
, nor “break [God’s] covenant with them” in the days of the Persians; “for [God will be] the Lord their God” in the days of Gog and Magog
Gog and Magog
Gog and Magog are names that appear primarily in various Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, as well as numerous subsequent references in other works. Their context can be either genealogical or eschatological and apocalyptic, as in Ezekiel and Revelation...
. Similarly, a Baraitha taught that God did “not reject” them in the days of the Chaldea
Chaldea
Chaldea or Chaldaea , from Greek , Chaldaia; Akkadian ; Hebrew כשדים, Kaśdim; Aramaic: ܟܐܠܕܘ, Kaldo) was a marshy land located in modern-day southern Iraq which came to briefly rule Babylon...
ns, for God sent them Daniel
Daniel
Daniel is the protagonist in the Book of Daniel of the Hebrew Bible. In the narrative, when Daniel was a young man, he was taken into Babylonian captivity where he was educated in Chaldean thought. However, he never converted to Neo-Babylonian ways...
, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah
Fiery furnace
Fiery furnace may refer to:* The fiery furnace in which Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were thrown into in Daniel 3* Fiery Furnace , a region of Utah's Arches National Park* The Fiery Furnaces, a rock band...
; God did not “abhor them” in the days of the Greeks, for God sent them Simeon the Righteous
Simeon the Just
Simeon the Just was a Jewish High Priest during the time of the Second Temple...
, the Hasmonean
Hasmonean
The Hasmonean dynasty , was the ruling dynasty of Judea and surrounding regions during classical antiquity. Between c. 140 and c. 116 BCE, the dynasty ruled semi-autonomously from the Seleucids in the region of Judea...
and his sons, and Mattathias
Mattathias
Mattathias ben Johanan was a Jewish priest whose role in the Jewish revolt against the Syrian Greeks is related in the Books of the Maccabees...
the High Priest
Kohen Gadol
The High Priest was the chief religious official of Israelite religion and of classical Judaism from the rise of the Israelite nation until the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem...
; and God did not “destroy them utterly” in the days of Haman, for God sent them Mordecai
Mordecai
Mordecai or Mordechai is one of the main personalities in the Book of Esther in the Hebrew Bible. He was the son of Jair, of the tribe of Benjamin.-Biblical account:...
and Esther
Esther
Esther , born Hadassah, is the eponymous heroine of the Biblical Book of Esther.According to the Bible, she was a Jewish queen of the Persian king Ahasuerus...
; and God did not “break [God’s] covenant with them” in the days of the Persians, for God sent them the house of Rabbi
Judah haNasi
Judah the Prince, or Judah I, also known as Rebbi or Rabbeinu HaKadosh , was a 2nd-century CE rabbi and chief redactor and editor of the Mishnah. He was a key leader of the Jewish community during the Roman occupation of Judea . He was of the Davidic line, the royal line of King David, hence the...
and the generations of Sages
Tannaim
The Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
; “for [God will be] the Lord their God” in the time to come, when no nation or people will be able to subject them. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 11a.)
Leviticus chapter 27
Tractate ArakhinArakhin
Arakhin is the fifth tractate in Seder Kodashim .Only chapters 1–6 based on Leviticus 27:1–8, deals with the vows of donating one's prescribed value as part of the dedication to the Temple, as well as other gifts to bedek habayis, or the treasury of the Temple...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta
Tosefta
The Tosefta is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah.-Overview:...
, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of dedicatory vows in (Mishnah Arakhin 1:1–9:8; Tosefta Arakhin 1:1–5:19; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 2a–34a.)
The Mishnah taught that the law of valuation sometimes tended toward leniency, and at other times tended toward stringency. The law valued equally the handsomest and the ugliest men in the country; either one owed 50 selas. (Mishnah Arakhin 3:1; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 13b.)
The Mishnah taught that to secure a vow to the Temple, they seized property from the one who made the vow. (Mishnah Arakhin 5:6; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 21a.) But they let the one who made the vow keep food for 30 days, garments for 12 months, bed and bedding, shoes, and tefillin
Tefillin
Tefillin also called phylacteries are a set of small black leather boxes containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah, which are worn by observant Jews during weekday morning prayers. Although "tefillin" is technically the plural form , it is loosely used as a singular as...
. If the one who made the vow was a craftsperson, they left two of every kind of tool. If the one who made the vow was a carpenter, they left two axes and two saws. Rabbi Eliezer
Eliezer ben Hurcanus
Eliezer ben Hurcanus or Eliezer ben Hyrcanus , a Kohen, was one of the most prominent tannaim of the 1st and 2nd centuries, disciple of R. Johanan ben Zakkai and colleague of Gamaliel II, whose sister he married , and of Joshua ben Hananiah...
said that if the one who made the vow was a farmer, they left a yoke of oxen. If the one who made the vow was a donkey-driver, they left a donkey. (Mishnah Arakhin 6:3; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 23b.)
Tractate Temurah
Temurah (Halacha)
In Jewish Law, Temurah is the prohibition against attempting to switch the sanctity of an animal that has been sanctified for the Temple in Jerusalem with another non-sanctified animal. It explicitly stated in ....
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of substituting one sacrifice for another in (Mishnah Temurah 1:1–7:6; Tosefta Temurah 1:1–4:17; Babylonian Talmud Temurah 2a–34a.)
Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai taught that just as the texts “He shall not break his word” in and “Defer not to pay it” in apply to vows, so they also apply to valuations, and thus Moses exhorted the Israelites in “When a man shall clearly utter a vow of persons to the Lord, according to your valuation . . . .” (Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus . It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel in his Aruk as well as by Rashi in his commentaries on , and elsewhere. According to Leopold Zunz, Hai Gaon and Nissim knew and made use of it...
37:2.)
Interpreting the instruction of that “according to the means of him that vowed shall the priest value him,” the Mishnah taught that this was done according to the ability of the one who vowed. The Mishnah taught that if a poor person vowed to give the value of a rich person, the poor person would pay only the valuation for a poor person. But if a rich person vowed to give the value of a poor person, the rich person still had to pay the full value of a rich person. (Mishnah Arakhin 4:1; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 17a.) Citing the Gemara explained that the Merciful One made the obligation dependent upon the means of the one who vowed. (Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 17a.) The Tosefta taught that while the valuation of a rich man was 50 selas as stated in the valuation of a poor man was one sela. (Tosefta Arakhin 1:5.)
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-ChinuchSefer ha-Chinuch
The Sefer ha-Chinuch , often simply "the Chinuch" is a work which systematically discusses the 613 commandments of the Torah. It was published anonymously in 13th century Spain...
, there are 7 positive and 5 negative commandments
Mitzvah
The primary meaning of the Hebrew word refers to precepts and commandments as commanded by God...
in the parshah:
- When one vows a person’s value, to estimate the value as determined by the Torah
- Not to substitute another beast for one set apart for sacrifice
- The new animal, in addition to the substituted one, retains consecration.
- To estimate the value of consecrated animals
- To estimate the value of consecrated houses
- To estimate the value of consecrated fields
- Not to change consecrated animals from one type of offering to another
- To carry out the laws of interdicting possessions
- Not to sell interdicted possessions
- Not to redeem interdicted possessions
- To separate the tithe from animals every year
- Not to redeem the tithe
Haftarah
The haftarahHaftarah
The haftarah or haftoroh is a series of selections from the books of Nevi'im of the Hebrew Bible that is publicly read in synagogue as part of Jewish religious practice...
for the parshah is The blessings and curses in are matched by a curse on “the man that trusts in man” in and a blessing on “the man that trusts in the Lord” in
Ancient
- Vassal treaties of EsarhaddonEsarhaddonEsarhaddon , was a king of Assyria who reigned 681 – 669 BC. He was the youngest son of Sennacherib and the Aramean queen Naqi'a , Sennacherib's second wife....
Biblical
(blessings and curses). (cannibalism). (cannibalism). (parents eating children). (parents eating children); 6:3–14 (sword, famine, pestilence; destroy high places; bring the sword against; cast slain men before idols; make the land desolate; make cities a waste; the savor).- ZechariahBook of ZechariahThe Book of Zechariah is the penultimate book of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew and Christian Bible, attributed to the prophet Zechariah.-Historical context:...
11:9 (cannibalism). (blessings and curses); 3:6 (to lie down in peace); 44:12 (scattered among the nations); 50:14–15 (performing vows); 65:2 (performing vows); 76:12 (performing vows); 78:59 (God abhorred Israel); 97:7 (graven images); 98:2 (in the sight of the nations); 106:41, 45 (they that hated them ruled over them; but God remembered God’s covenant); 127:1 (labor in vain); 136:23 (God remembered). (mothers eating children).
Early nonrabbinic
- JosephusJosephusTitus Flavius Josephus , also called Joseph ben Matityahu , was a 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian and hagiographer of priestly and royal ancestry who recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the 1st century AD and the First Jewish–Roman War, which resulted in the Destruction of...
. The Wars of the JewsThe Wars of the JewsThe Jewish War , in full Flavius Josephus's Books of the History of the Jewish War against the Romans , also referred to in English as The Wars of the Jews and The History of the Destruction of Jerusalem, is a book written by the 1st century Jewish historian Josephus.It is a description of Jewish...
, 6:3:3–5. Circa 75 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William WhistonWilliam WhistonWilliam Whiston was an English theologian, historian, and mathematician. He is probably best known for his translation of the Antiquities of the Jews and other works by Josephus, his A New Theory of the Earth, and his Arianism...
, 737–38. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8.
Classical rabbinic
- MishnahMishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
: Challah 4:9; Taanit 3:5; Megillah 3:3, 6; Chagigah 1:4; Avot 5:8; Menachot 9:7, 12:1; Bekhorot 1:7, 9:1–8; Arakhin 1:1–9:8; Temurah 1:1–7:6. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob NeusnerJacob NeusnerJacob Neusner is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York.-Biography:Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America , the University of Oxford, and Columbia University.Neusner is often celebrated...
, 157, 312, 320–21, 329, 752, 759, 790, 807–36. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4. - SifraSifraSifra is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah, as appears from Tanḥuma, quoted in Or Zarua, i. 7b. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" , and in two passages also "Sifra debe...
260:1–277:1. Land of Israel, 4th Century CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 3:345–409. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-207-0. - Jerusalem TalmudJerusalem TalmudThe Jerusalem Talmud, talmud meaning "instruction", "learning", , is a collection of Rabbinic notes on the 2nd-century Mishnah which was compiled in the Land of Israel during the 4th-5th century. The voluminous text is also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud de-Eretz Yisrael...
: Berakhot 90b; Peah 8a, 64a; Maasrot 1a; Maaser Sheni 4a, 24a, 31b, 37b, 48a, 50a; Challah 15b, 31b, 46b. Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 2–3, 9–11. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006–2009. - Leviticus RabbahLeviticus RabbahLeviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus . It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel in his Aruk as well as by Rashi in his commentaries on , and elsewhere. According to Leopold Zunz, Hai Gaon and Nissim knew and made use of it...
6:5; 10:7; 11:3; 15:1; 34:9; 35:1–37:4. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon, 4:84, 131, 137, 189, 435, 446–71. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
- Babylonian TalmudTalmudThe Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
: Berakhot 47b; Shabbat 32b–33a, 77b, 104a, 136b, 148b; Eruvin 2a, 31b, 50a; Pesachim 37b, 63a, 66b; Yoma 50b, 66a, 80a; Beitzah 36b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 4a; Taanit 7b, 22b; Megillah 2b, 11a, 23b, 25b, 28a, 31a–b; Chagigah 10a; Yevamot 20a, 84a; Ketubot 37b, 46a, 54a; Nedarim 18b, 20a, 36b, 69b; Nazir 25a, 31a–b, 61a, 62a; Gittin 12a, 37a, 38b, 48a; Kiddushin 5a, 7a, 17a, 24a, 29a, 32a, 53a, 54b, 61a–b; Bava Kamma 10a, 13a, 40a, 68b, 69b, 73b, 78a, 102b, 109b, 110b, 115b; Bava Metzia 6a, 7a, 46a, 47a, 53b–55a, 57a, 67b, 91a, 106a, 113b; Bava Batra 71a, 72a–b, 75a, 88b, 91b, 103a, 108b, 112a, 121b; Sanhedrin 14b–15a, 27b, 52b, 63b, 70a, 87a, 88a, 100a; Makkot 13a–b, 16a, 19a, 21b, 22b, 24a; Shevuot 11b, 16b, 21a, 22a, 39a; Avodah Zarah 5a, 13a, 63a; Zevachim 5b–6a, 9a, 12a, 30a, 56b, 81b; Menachot 6a, 79b, 81a, 82a, 87b, 92a, 93a, 101a; Chullin 2a, 25b, 30a, 41b, 69a–b, 84a, 114a, 130a, 133b, 135a, 136b, 139a; Bekhorot 4b, 10b–11a, 12a, 13a, 14a–b, 15b, 31b–32b, 36b, 37b, 41b–42a, 49a, 50a–b, 51b, 53a–b, 54b, 57a, 58b, 59b–60b; Arakhin 2a–34a; Temurah 2a–34a; Keritot 27a; Meilah 10b, 13a; Niddah 4b, 28b, 48a. Babylonia, 6th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. - TanhumaTanhumaMidrash Tanhuma is the name given to three different collections of Pentateuch haggadot; two are extant, while the third is known only through citations. These midrashim, although bearing the name of R. Tanḥuma, must not be regarded as having been written or edited by him...
Bechukotai. 6th–7th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Vayikra. Translated and annotated by Avraham Davis; edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, 5:531–58. Monsey, N.Y.: Eastern Book Press, 2006.
Medieval
- Tanna Devei EliyahuTanna Devei EliyahuTanna Devei Eliyahu is the composite name of a midrash, consisting of two parts, whose final redaction took place at the end of the 10th century CE. The first part is called "Seder Eliyahu Rabbah" ; the second, "Seder Eliyahu Zuṭa"...
. Seder Eliyyahu Rabbah 16, 56, 95–96, 130–31. Eliyyahu Zuta 171. 10th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Tanna Debe Eliyyahu: The Lore of the School of Elijah. Translated by William G. Braude and Israel J. Kapstein, 34, 129, 212, 283, 365. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1981. ISBN 0-8276-0634-6. - Solomon ibn GabirolSolomon ibn GabirolSolomon ibn Gabirol, also Solomon ben Judah , was an Andalucian Hebrew poet and Jewish philosopher with a Neoplatonic bent. He was born in Málaga about 1021; died about 1058 in Valencia.-Biography:...
. A Crown for the King, 24:284. Spain, 11th Century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, 38–39. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-511962-2. - RashiRashiShlomo Yitzhaki , or in Latin Salomon Isaacides, and today generally known by the acronym Rashi , was a medieval French rabbi famed as the author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, as well as a comprehensive commentary on the Tanakh...
. Commentary. Leviticus 26–27. TroyesTroyesTroyes is a commune and the capital of the Aube department in north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about southeast of Paris. Many half-timbered houses survive in the old town...
, France, late 11th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi’s Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 3:347–86. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-89906-028-5. - ZoharZoharThe Zohar is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material on Mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology...
3:112a–115b. Spain, late 13th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Modern
- Thomas HobbesThomas HobbesThomas Hobbes of Malmesbury , in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy...
. LeviathanLeviathan (book)Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil — commonly called simply Leviathan — is a book written by Thomas Hobbes and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan...
, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. MacphersonC. B. MacphersonCrawford Brough Macpherson O.C. M.Sc. D. Sc. was an influential Canadian political scientist who taught political theory at the University of Toronto.-Life:...
, 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950. - Lionel E. Moses. “Is There an Authentic Triennial Cycle of Torah Readings?” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1987. OH 137.1987b. Reprinted in Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, 77, 90. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. ISBN 0-916219-27-5. (implications of an injunction to read the curses before the end of Passover for a triennial Torah reading cycle).
- Avram Israel Reisner. “A Halakhic Ethic of Care for the Terminally Ill.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1990. YD 339:1.1990a. Reprinted in Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, 467, 477, 497 n. 32. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. ISBN 0-916219-27-5. (God’s role in illness and healing, and the implications for our duty to seek medical care).
- Elliot N. DorffElliot N. DorffElliot N. Dorff is a Conservative rabbi. He is a professor of Jewish theology at the American Jewish University in California , author and a bio-ethicist....
and Aaron L. MacklerAaron L. MacklerAaron L. Mackler is Associate Professor of Theology at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and an ordained Conservative Rabbi. He is a prolific author and expert in both the fields of Bioethics and Jewish law...
. “Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998. YD 336:1.1998. Reprinted in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 319, 321 n. 2. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4. (God’s role in illness and healing, and the implications for our duty to provide medical care). - Esther JungreisEsther JungreisEsther Jungreis is the founder of the international Hineni movement in America. A Holocaust survivor, she has made it her life's mission to bring back Jews to Orthodox Judaism.-Biography:...
. Life Is a Test, 224. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4226-0609-0.
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