Battle of Cajamarca
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Cajamarca was a surprise attack on the Inca
royal entourage orchestrated by Francisco Pizarro
. Sprung on the evening of November 16, 1532, in the great plaza of Cajamarca
, the ambush
achieved the goal of capturing the Inca, Atahualpa
, and claimed the lives of thousands of his followers.
against his half-brother Huascar
, the Inca felt they had little to fear from Pizarro's tiny army, however exotic its dress and weaponry. In a calculated show of goodwill, Atahualpa had lured the adventurers deep into the heart of his mountain empire where any potential threat could be met with a show of force. Pizarro and his men arrived on November 15.
Atahualpa, unlike Moctezuma II
in Mexico, knew right away that these men were not gods nor were they representatives of the gods. The reports from his own spies confirmed that. According to Spanish sources, he planned to recruit a few of the conquistador
es into his own service and to appropriate Spanish firearms and horses for his armies. He would then execute the others at his leisure.
The book History Of The Conquest Of Peru, written by 19th century author William H. Prescott
, recounts the dilemma the Spanish force found itself in. Any assault on the Inca armies overlooking the valley would have been suicidal. Retreat was equally out of the question, because any show of weakness might have undermined their air of invincibility, and would invite pursuit and closure of the mountain passes. Once the great stone fortresses dotting their route of escape were garrisoned, argued Pizarro, they would prove impregnable. But to do nothing, he added, was no better since prolonged contact with the natives would erode the fears of Spanish supernatural
ity that kept them at bay. Unlike his kinsman Hernán Cortés
, whom Pizarro emulated and who could call on Spanish reinforcements 200 miles away in Veracruz
, Pizarro's nearest Spanish reinforcements were 2,000 miles away in Panama
.
in its audacity: he would capture the emperor from within the midst of his own armies. Since this could not realistically be accomplished in an open field, Pizarro invited the Inca to Cajamarca. According to the chroniclers, no one slept that night and some even "wet themselves in their terror".
Atahualpa accepted this invitation. Leading a procession of over eighty thousand men, he advanced down the hillside very slowly the next day. Pizarro's fortunes changed dramatically in the late afternoon when Atahualpa announced that the greater part of his host would set up camp outside the walls of the city. He requested that accommodations be provided only for himself and his retinue, which would forsake its weapons in a sign of amity and absolute confidence.
Having concealed themselves within the city, the Spaniards allowed the Incas to enter unopposed. An incident occurred when Friar
Vincente de Valverde
approached the Inca and ordered him to accept Catholicism
as his faith and Charles V
, the Holy Roman Emperor
as sovereign
. Atahualpa was equally insulted and confused by the Spaniard's demands. Although Atahualpa likely had no intention of conceding to their demands, according to chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega
he did attempt inquiry into the Spaniard's faith and their king, but Pizarro's men began to grow impatient. Discussions ended abruptly when Atahualpa was offered a Bible and dropped it on the ground. Historical accounts differ on whether the friar returned to Pizarro and related the incident, along with some demands by the Inca, after which Pizarro ordered the attack to begin or if he immediately turned to the hidden Spanish troops and exhorted them to attack in the name of the Church, absolving them of the murders to come.
, son of Manco II
and a nephew of Atahualpa, dictated the only Inca eyewitness accounts of the events leading up to the battle which have been generally discounted by historians as they do not match the Spanish accounts. On November 15 Atahualpa had received Pizarro and de Soto, offering them gold cups containing Chicha
which they poured out on the ground. The Spaniards then gave Atahualpa a letter (or book) which they said was quilca (image-writing) of God and the king. Offended by the spilling of the chicha, Atahualpa threw the "letter or whatever it was" away, telling them to leave. Diego de Trujillo stated that Pizarro was given a gold cup while de Soto was offered a silver cup. Pizarro then told the ruler that de Soto was of equal rank and should be treated as such.
On November 16, Atahualpa arrived at Cajamarca "not with weapons to fight or armour to defend themselves," although they did carry tumis (ceremonial knives to kill Llama
s) and some carried ayllus (possibly bolas
). The Spanish approached and told Atahualpa that Virococha had ordered them to tell the Inca who they were. Atahualpa listened then gave one (de Valverde?) a gold cup of chicha which was not drunk and given no attention at all. Furious, Atahualpa stood and yelled "Since you pay no importance to me I wish nothing to do with you" at which the Spanish attacked. Titu Cusi did not mention the bible being offered on the day of the battle, an omission that has been explained as either due to its insignificance to the Inca or to Titu Cusi confusing the events of the two days. His account of the battle itself is heavily influenced by Inca mythology and ritualised.
against the Incan forces, who had never seen horses, in combination with gunfire from cover (the Incan forces also had never encountered firearm
s before) combined with the ringing of bells to frighten the Inca. Other factors in the Spaniards' favor were their steel swords, helmets, and armor as the Incan forces had only leather armor and were unarmed. The Spanish also had 4 small cannons commanded by a Greek artillery captain which were used to great effect in the crowded town square. The first target of the Spanish attack was Atahualpa and his top commanders. Pizarro rushed at Atahualpa on horseback but he remained motionless. Some of the Inca however "flinched" and Atahualpa immediately had them put to death despite being under attack. The Spanish later severed the hands or arms of the attendants carrying Atahualpa's litter to force them to drop it so they could reach him. The Spanish were astounded that the attendants ignored their wounds and used their stumps or remaining hands to hold it up until several were killed and the litter slumped. However, the Spanish noticed that Atahualpa was drunk so left him sitting on the litter while they fought a large group of Inca at which time a large number of Inca rushed to place themselves between the litter and the Spanish, deliberately allowing themselves to be killed. While his men were killing these Inca, Pizarro rode through them and pulled Atahualpa from the litter. While doing so several soldiers also reached the litter and one attempted to kill Atahualpa, Pizarro defended him and received a sword wound to his hand.
Atahualpa's wife, 10 year old Cuxirimay Ocllo, was with the army and stayed with him while he was imprisoned. Following his execution she was taken to Cuzco and took the name Dona Angelina. By 1538 it was known she was Pizarro's mistress, bearing him two sons, Juan and Francisco. Following his assassination in 1541 she married the interpreter Juan de Betanzos
who later wrote Narratives of the Incas, part one covering Inca history up to the arrival of the Spanish and part two covering the conquest to 1557, mainly from the Inca viewpoint which included mentions of interviews with Inca guards who were near Atahualpa's litter when he was captured. Never published, only the first 18 chapters of part one were known until the complete manuscript was found and published in 1987.
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
royal entourage orchestrated by Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess was a Spanish conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire, and founder of Lima, the modern-day capital of the Republic of Peru.-Early life:...
. Sprung on the evening of November 16, 1532, in the great plaza of Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca may refer to:Colombia*Cajamarca, Tolima a town and municipality in Tolima DepartmentPeru* Cajamarca, city in Peru.* Cajamarca District, district in the Cajamarca province.* Cajamarca Province, province in the Cajamarca region....
, the ambush
Ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors take advantage of concealment and the element of surprise to attack an unsuspecting enemy from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops...
achieved the goal of capturing the Inca, Atahualpa
Atahualpa
Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa , was the last Sapa Inca or sovereign emperor of the Tahuantinsuyu, or the Inca Empire, prior to the Spanish conquest of Peru...
, and claimed the lives of thousands of his followers.
History
The confrontation at Cajamarca was the culmination of a months-long struggle involving espionage, subterfuge, and diplomacy between Pizarro and the Inca via their respective envoys. Atahualpa had received the invaders from a position of immense strength. Encamped along the heights of Cajamarca with legions of battle-tested troops fresh from their victories in the civil warCivil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
against his half-brother Huascar
Huáscar
Huáscar Inca was Sapa Inca of the Inca empire from 1527 to 1532 AD, succeeding his father Huayna Capac and brother Ninan Cuyochi, both of whom died of smallpox while campaigning near Quito.After the conquest, the Spanish put forth the idea that Huayna Capac may have...
, the Inca felt they had little to fear from Pizarro's tiny army, however exotic its dress and weaponry. In a calculated show of goodwill, Atahualpa had lured the adventurers deep into the heart of his mountain empire where any potential threat could be met with a show of force. Pizarro and his men arrived on November 15.
Atahualpa, unlike Moctezuma II
Moctezuma II
Moctezuma , also known by a number of variant spellings including Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520...
in Mexico, knew right away that these men were not gods nor were they representatives of the gods. The reports from his own spies confirmed that. According to Spanish sources, he planned to recruit a few of the conquistador
Conquistador
Conquistadors were Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th to 16th centuries, following Europe's discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492...
es into his own service and to appropriate Spanish firearms and horses for his armies. He would then execute the others at his leisure.
The book History Of The Conquest Of Peru, written by 19th century author William H. Prescott
William H. Prescott
William Hickling Prescott was an American historian and Hispanist, who is widely recognized by historiographers to have been the first American scientific historian...
, recounts the dilemma the Spanish force found itself in. Any assault on the Inca armies overlooking the valley would have been suicidal. Retreat was equally out of the question, because any show of weakness might have undermined their air of invincibility, and would invite pursuit and closure of the mountain passes. Once the great stone fortresses dotting their route of escape were garrisoned, argued Pizarro, they would prove impregnable. But to do nothing, he added, was no better since prolonged contact with the natives would erode the fears of Spanish supernatural
Supernatural
The supernatural or is that which is not subject to the laws of nature, or more figuratively, that which is said to exist above and beyond nature...
ity that kept them at bay. Unlike his kinsman Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century...
, whom Pizarro emulated and who could call on Spanish reinforcements 200 miles away in Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
, Pizarro's nearest Spanish reinforcements were 2,000 miles away in Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
.
Preparations
Pizarro gathered his officers on the evening of November 15 and outlined a scheme that recalled memories of Cortés' exploits in MexicoMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
in its audacity: he would capture the emperor from within the midst of his own armies. Since this could not realistically be accomplished in an open field, Pizarro invited the Inca to Cajamarca. According to the chroniclers, no one slept that night and some even "wet themselves in their terror".
Atahualpa accepted this invitation. Leading a procession of over eighty thousand men, he advanced down the hillside very slowly the next day. Pizarro's fortunes changed dramatically in the late afternoon when Atahualpa announced that the greater part of his host would set up camp outside the walls of the city. He requested that accommodations be provided only for himself and his retinue, which would forsake its weapons in a sign of amity and absolute confidence.
Having concealed themselves within the city, the Spaniards allowed the Incas to enter unopposed. An incident occurred when Friar
Friar
A friar is a member of one of the mendicant orders.-Friars and monks:...
Vincente de Valverde
Vincente de Valverde
Vincente de Valverde was a Spanish bishop. He was born in Oropesa , Spain about 1490 and most sources claim he died in Isla Puna, Ecuador, in 1543...
approached the Inca and ordered him to accept Catholicism
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
as his faith and Charles V
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
, the Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
as sovereign
Sovereign
A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority within its jurisdiction.Sovereign may also refer to:*Monarch, the sovereign of a monarchy*Sovereign Bank, banking institution in the United States*Sovereign...
. Atahualpa was equally insulted and confused by the Spaniard's demands. Although Atahualpa likely had no intention of conceding to their demands, according to chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega , born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, was a historian and writer from the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. The son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, he is recognized primarily for his contributions to Inca history, culture, and society...
he did attempt inquiry into the Spaniard's faith and their king, but Pizarro's men began to grow impatient. Discussions ended abruptly when Atahualpa was offered a Bible and dropped it on the ground. Historical accounts differ on whether the friar returned to Pizarro and related the incident, along with some demands by the Inca, after which Pizarro ordered the attack to begin or if he immediately turned to the hidden Spanish troops and exhorted them to attack in the name of the Church, absolving them of the murders to come.
Inca account of events
Titu Cusi YupanquiTitu Cusi
Don Diego de Castro Titu Cusi Yupanqui was a son of Manco Inca Yupanqui, and became the Inca ruler of Vilcabamba, the penultimate leader of the neo-Incan state. He was crowned in 1558, after the death of his half brother, Sayri Tupac...
, son of Manco II
Manco Inca Yupanqui
Manco Inca Yupanqui was one of the Incas of Vilcabamba. He was also known as "Manco II" and "Manco Cápac II" . Born in 1516, he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and came from a lower class of the nobility.Túpac Huallpa, a puppet ruler crowned by conquistador Francisco Pizarro, died in 1533...
and a nephew of Atahualpa, dictated the only Inca eyewitness accounts of the events leading up to the battle which have been generally discounted by historians as they do not match the Spanish accounts. On November 15 Atahualpa had received Pizarro and de Soto, offering them gold cups containing Chicha
Chicha
For the musical genre, see Peruvian cumbiaChicha is a term used in some regions of Latin America for several varieties of fermented and non-fermented beverages, rather often to those derived from maize and similar non-alcoholic beverages...
which they poured out on the ground. The Spaniards then gave Atahualpa a letter (or book) which they said was quilca (image-writing) of God and the king. Offended by the spilling of the chicha, Atahualpa threw the "letter or whatever it was" away, telling them to leave. Diego de Trujillo stated that Pizarro was given a gold cup while de Soto was offered a silver cup. Pizarro then told the ruler that de Soto was of equal rank and should be treated as such.
On November 16, Atahualpa arrived at Cajamarca "not with weapons to fight or armour to defend themselves," although they did carry tumis (ceremonial knives to kill Llama
Llama
The llama is a South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since pre-Hispanic times....
s) and some carried ayllus (possibly bolas
Bolas
Bolas are a throwing weapon superficially similar to the surujin, made of weights on the ends of interconnected cords, designed to capture animals by entangling their legs...
). The Spanish approached and told Atahualpa that Virococha had ordered them to tell the Inca who they were. Atahualpa listened then gave one (de Valverde?) a gold cup of chicha which was not drunk and given no attention at all. Furious, Atahualpa stood and yelled "Since you pay no importance to me I wish nothing to do with you" at which the Spanish attacked. Titu Cusi did not mention the bible being offered on the day of the battle, an omission that has been explained as either due to its insignificance to the Inca or to Titu Cusi confusing the events of the two days. His account of the battle itself is heavily influenced by Inca mythology and ritualised.
Atahualpa's Capture
At the signal to attack, the Spaniards unleashed gunfire at the vulnerable mass of Incans and surged forward in a concerted action. The effect was devastating: the shocked and unarmed Incans offered so little resistance that the battle has often been labeled a massacre. Contemporary accounts by members of Pizarro's force explain how the Spanish forces used a cavalry chargeCharge (warfare)
A charge is a maneuver in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic and decisive moment of most battles in history...
against the Incan forces, who had never seen horses, in combination with gunfire from cover (the Incan forces also had never encountered firearm
Firearm
A firearm is a weapon that launches one, or many, projectile at high velocity through confined burning of a propellant. This subsonic burning process is technically known as deflagration, as opposed to supersonic combustion known as a detonation. In older firearms, the propellant was typically...
s before) combined with the ringing of bells to frighten the Inca. Other factors in the Spaniards' favor were their steel swords, helmets, and armor as the Incan forces had only leather armor and were unarmed. The Spanish also had 4 small cannons commanded by a Greek artillery captain which were used to great effect in the crowded town square. The first target of the Spanish attack was Atahualpa and his top commanders. Pizarro rushed at Atahualpa on horseback but he remained motionless. Some of the Inca however "flinched" and Atahualpa immediately had them put to death despite being under attack. The Spanish later severed the hands or arms of the attendants carrying Atahualpa's litter to force them to drop it so they could reach him. The Spanish were astounded that the attendants ignored their wounds and used their stumps or remaining hands to hold it up until several were killed and the litter slumped. However, the Spanish noticed that Atahualpa was drunk so left him sitting on the litter while they fought a large group of Inca at which time a large number of Inca rushed to place themselves between the litter and the Spanish, deliberately allowing themselves to be killed. While his men were killing these Inca, Pizarro rode through them and pulled Atahualpa from the litter. While doing so several soldiers also reached the litter and one attempted to kill Atahualpa, Pizarro defended him and received a sword wound to his hand.
Atahualpa's wife, 10 year old Cuxirimay Ocllo, was with the army and stayed with him while he was imprisoned. Following his execution she was taken to Cuzco and took the name Dona Angelina. By 1538 it was known she was Pizarro's mistress, bearing him two sons, Juan and Francisco. Following his assassination in 1541 she married the interpreter Juan de Betanzos
Juan de Betanzos
Juan de Betanzos wrote one of the most important sources on the conquest of the Incan civilization, Narrative of the Incas. He based this account of the Incas on the testimony of his wife, who had been previously married to Incan King Atahualpa as well as conducting interviews of Incans who had...
who later wrote Narratives of the Incas, part one covering Inca history up to the arrival of the Spanish and part two covering the conquest to 1557, mainly from the Inca viewpoint which included mentions of interviews with Inca guards who were near Atahualpa's litter when he was captured. Never published, only the first 18 chapters of part one were known until the complete manuscript was found and published in 1987.