Whole-body transplant
Encyclopedia
A whole-body transplant or brain transplant is a hypothetical operation that would move the brain of one being into the body of another. It is a procedure distinct from head transplant
, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with advanced organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality and memories.
Historically, whole-body transplants have not been feasible and were widely regarded as impossible. Today, given progress in organ transplant
and human cloning
research, many scientists hold that whole-body transplants are theoretically possible and likely to be feasibile in the future. Some bioethicists
argue that there are difficult moral problems
involved in either harvesting a brain-dead body, especially one deliberately created using human cloning
, or otherwise acquiring a body (say, of a criminal due to be executed for a crime, or an individual who is not dead but is soon to die of a brain-based illness).
Whole-body transplants and similar concepts have been explored in various forms of fiction.
tissue to heal properly; scar
red nerve tissue does not transmit signals well (this is why a spinal cord injury
is so devastating). However, recent research at the Wistar Institute
of the University of Pennsylvania
involving tissue-regenerating
mice (known as MRL mice) may provide pointers for further research as to how to regenerate nerves without scarring.
There is also a potential problem of the new interface at the spinal cord, in that even if all the nerves are connected successfully, they may still be connected wrongly, in some cases, thus not transmitting the same information as the same nerve connection in the old body. For example, a nerve that used to control the right index finger's muscle group might be connected to a different finger's muscle group, or another body part entirely. If this were to happen to a large number of connections, the person undergoing the transplant might end up with a body which transmitted sensory input to the wrong destination, making it incomprehensible and potentially requiring many years of rehabilitation.
Also, for the procedure to be practical, the age of the donated body must be sufficient: an adult brain cannot fit into a skull that has not reached its full growth, which occurs at age 9–12 years.
There is an advantage however, the brain is an immunologically privileged organ, so rejection would not be a problem, unlike other organs, say the liver, which is usually aggressively rejected by the host's immune system.
. This is the premise of I of Persistence, a human life-extension manifesto and science fiction story. In that story, the older transplanted brain tissue is eventually removed and replaced with youthful tissue, restoring complete youthfulness with continuity (or persistence) of conscious identity.
In 1982 Dr. Dorothy T. Krieger, chief of endocrinology
at Mount Sinai Medical Center
in New York City, achieved notable success with a partial brain transplant in mice. A partial brain transplant could accomplish essentially the same goal — movement of a person's "identity" from one body to another — and thus qualify as a whole-body transplant no less than a full brain transplant. As Dr. Krieger demonstrated, barriers to accomplishing this feat might be much lower than transplantation of the entire brain.
In 1998, a team of surgeon
s from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
attempted to transplant a group of brain cells to Alma Cerasini, who had suffered a severe stroke
that caused the loss of mobility in her right limbs
as well as limited speech. The team's hope was that the cells would correct the listed damage.
A similar procedure often found in science fiction is the transfer of one consciousness to another without moving the brain. This is found in many sources, most often a body swap
between two characters of an ongoing television series; it occurs in the original Star Trek
series twice, as well as Freaky Friday
, Farscape
, Stargate SG-1
, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Dollhouse
, Red Dwarf
, Avatar; even in Archie comics. Since there is no movement of the brain(s), however, this is not quite the same as a whole-body transplant.
In horror, the film The Skeleton Key
has the protagonist, Caroline, discover that the old couple she is looking after are really poor black Voodoo witch doctors, Mama Cecile and Papa Justify, who stole the bodies of two young privileged white children in their care using a ritual which allows a soul to swap bodies. Unfortunately the evil old couple also trick Caroline and their lawyer, Luke, into falling foul of the same procedure and both end up stuck in old dying bodies unable to speak while the witch doctors walk off with their young bodies. The theme of stealing another persons body is also repeated in the book The Tale of the Body Thief
by Anne Rice. In this case the vampire Lestat discovers a man, Raglan James, who can will themselves into another persons body. He demands that the procedure is used on him to allow him to revert to being human once again. However, Lestat soon realises he has made an error and is forced to recapture James in his vampiric form so he can take his body back.
In the Star Wars Expanded Universe
, Emperor Palpatine is able to transfer his consciousness into clone bodies. In a sense, this allows him to return to life after the Battle of Endor, as well as other events where his current body dies. The clone bodies aren't quite as good as his original body and waste quickly due to the decaying power of the Dark Side of the Force. Upon realizing this, he tries to take of the body of Anakin Solo, but is unsuccessful and eventually meets his final end.
Similar in many ways to this is the idea of mind uploading, promoted by Marvin Minsky
and others with a mechanistic view of natural intelligence and an optimistic outlook regarding artificial intelligence
. It is also a goal of Raëlism
, a small cult based in Florida, France, and Quebec. However, while 'transplanting' sees the ultimate goal as being a new body optimized for that brain by genetics
, proteomics
, and/or other medical procedures and a transfer of the brain to that body, in the almost equally speculative procedure of 'downloading', the brain itself moves nowhere and may even be physically destroyed or discarded; the goal is rather to duplicate the information patterns contained within the brain.
Another similar literary theme, though different from either procedure described above, is the transplanting of a human brain into an artificial, usually robotic, body. Examples of this include: Caprica; Fullmetal Alchemist
; Ghost In The Shell
; RoboCop
; the DC Comics
superhero Robotman; the Cybermen from the Doctor Who
television series; the cymeks in the Legends of Dune
series; or full-body cyborgs in many manga
or works in the cyberpunk
genre. In Star Trek
, the episode "Spock's Brain" involves transplantation of the eponymous organ into a large computer-like structure, and in "I, Mudd" Uhura is offered immortality in an android body. The novel Harvest of Stars by Poul Anderson
features many central characters who undergo such transplants, and deals with the difficult decisions facing a human contemplating such a procedure.
Spinal cord regeneration
Head transplant
A head transplant is a surgical operation involving the grafting of an organism's head onto the body of another. It should not be confused with another, hypothetical, surgical operation, the brain transplant. Head transplantation involves decapitating the patient...
, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with advanced organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality and memories.
Historically, whole-body transplants have not been feasible and were widely regarded as impossible. Today, given progress in organ transplant
Organ transplant
Organ transplantation is the moving of an organ from one body to another or from a donor site on the patient's own body, for the purpose of replacing the recipient's damaged or absent organ. The emerging field of regenerative medicine is allowing scientists and engineers to create organs to be...
and human cloning
Human cloning
Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to monozygotic multiple births nor the reproduction of human cells or tissue. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue...
research, many scientists hold that whole-body transplants are theoretically possible and likely to be feasibile in the future. Some bioethicists
Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy....
argue that there are difficult moral problems
Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
involved in either harvesting a brain-dead body, especially one deliberately created using human cloning
Human cloning
Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. It does not usually refer to monozygotic multiple births nor the reproduction of human cells or tissue. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue...
, or otherwise acquiring a body (say, of a criminal due to be executed for a crime, or an individual who is not dead but is soon to die of a brain-based illness).
Whole-body transplants and similar concepts have been explored in various forms of fiction.
Existing challenges
One of the most significant barriers to the procedure is the inability of nerveNerve
A peripheral nerve, or simply nerve, is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system...
tissue to heal properly; scar
Scar
Scars are areas of fibrous tissue that replace normal skin after injury. A scar results from the biological process of wound repair in the skin and other tissues of the body. Thus, scarring is a natural part of the healing process. With the exception of very minor lesions, every wound results in...
red nerve tissue does not transmit signals well (this is why a spinal cord injury
Spinal cord injury
A spinal cord injury refers to any injury to the spinal cord that is caused by trauma instead of disease. Depending on where the spinal cord and nerve roots are damaged, the symptoms can vary widely, from pain to paralysis to incontinence...
is so devastating). However, recent research at the Wistar Institute
Wistar Institute
The Wistar Institute is a biomedical center, with a focus on cancer research and vaccine development. It is located in the University City section of Philadelphia, Pa...
of the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...
involving tissue-regenerating
Regeneration (biology)
In biology, regeneration is the process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makes genomes, cells, organs, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. Every species is capable of regeneration, from bacteria to humans. At its most...
mice (known as MRL mice) may provide pointers for further research as to how to regenerate nerves without scarring.
There is also a potential problem of the new interface at the spinal cord, in that even if all the nerves are connected successfully, they may still be connected wrongly, in some cases, thus not transmitting the same information as the same nerve connection in the old body. For example, a nerve that used to control the right index finger's muscle group might be connected to a different finger's muscle group, or another body part entirely. If this were to happen to a large number of connections, the person undergoing the transplant might end up with a body which transmitted sensory input to the wrong destination, making it incomprehensible and potentially requiring many years of rehabilitation.
Also, for the procedure to be practical, the age of the donated body must be sufficient: an adult brain cannot fit into a skull that has not reached its full growth, which occurs at age 9–12 years.
There is an advantage however, the brain is an immunologically privileged organ, so rejection would not be a problem, unlike other organs, say the liver, which is usually aggressively rejected by the host's immune system.
Partial brain transplant
An arguably more reasonable scenario is a partial brain transplant involving only enough tissue to provide key memories and a sense of continuity of identity. A fairly large but indeterminate amount of the brain is devoted to processing and controlling sensory, motor, and autonomic functions such as vision, olfaction, movement, appetite, etc.; transplanting these portions is likely to be difficult and, if the goal is to transfer memories and/or identity, unnecessary. The recipient body of such a transplant probably would have to possess a naïve and never-conscious brain or partial brain, such as in a never-conscious cloned somaSomatic
The term somatic means 'of the body',, relating to the body. In medicine, somatic illness is bodily, not mental, illness. The term is often used in biology to refer to the cells of the body in contrast to the germ line cells which usually give rise to the gametes...
. This is the premise of I of Persistence, a human life-extension manifesto and science fiction story. In that story, the older transplanted brain tissue is eventually removed and replaced with youthful tissue, restoring complete youthfulness with continuity (or persistence) of conscious identity.
In 1982 Dr. Dorothy T. Krieger, chief of endocrinology
Endocrinology
Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions called hormones, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation and the coordination of...
at Mount Sinai Medical Center
Mount Sinai Hospital, New York
Mount Sinai Hospital, founded in 1852, is one of the oldest and largest teaching hospitals in the United States. In 2011-2012, Mount Sinai Hospital was ranked as one of America's best hospitals by U.S...
in New York City, achieved notable success with a partial brain transplant in mice. A partial brain transplant could accomplish essentially the same goal — movement of a person's "identity" from one body to another — and thus qualify as a whole-body transplant no less than a full brain transplant. As Dr. Krieger demonstrated, barriers to accomplishing this feat might be much lower than transplantation of the entire brain.
In 1998, a team of surgeon
Surgeon
In medicine, a surgeon is a specialist in surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive medical treatment that involves the cutting of a body, whether human or animal, for a specific reason such as the removal of diseased tissue or to repair a tear or breakage...
s from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center is an $9 billion integrated global nonprofit health enterprise that has 54,000 employees, 20 hospitals, 4,200 licensed beds, 400 outpatient sites and doctors’ offices, a 1.5 million-member health insurance division, as well as commercial and...
attempted to transplant a group of brain cells to Alma Cerasini, who had suffered a severe stroke
Stroke
A stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
that caused the loss of mobility in her right limbs
Limb (anatomy)
A limb is a jointed, or prehensile , appendage of the human or other animal body....
as well as limited speech. The team's hope was that the cells would correct the listed damage.
Whole-body transplants in popular culture
Transplantation of a human brain from one body into another has appeared on occasion in popular literature. The intended effect is most often either horrific or comedic, though many of these stories explore the medical, ethical, legal, and other issues that would surround the procedure.- The transplant has been a common subject in horror films, most notably FrankensteinFrankenstein (1931 film)Frankenstein is a 1931 Pre-Code Horror Monster film from Universal Pictures directed by James Whale and adapted from the play by Peggy Webling which in turn is based on the novel of the same name by Mary Shelley. The film stars Colin Clive, Mae Clarke, John Boles and Boris Karloff, and features...
. - The Ultra-HumaniteUltra-HumaniteThe Ultra-Humanite is a fictional character that appears in comic books published by DC Comics. The character first appeared in Action Comics #13 , and was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster...
, one of the main villains opposing the Golden Age SupermanSupermanSuperman is a fictional comic book superhero appearing in publications by DC Comics, widely considered to be an American cultural icon. Created by American writer Jerry Siegel and Canadian-born American artist Joe Shuster in 1932 while both were living in Cleveland, Ohio, and sold to Detective...
and Justice Society of AmericaJustice Society of AmericaThe Justice Society of America, or JSA, is a DC Comics superhero group, the first team of superheroes in comic book history. Conceived by editor Sheldon Mayer and writer Gardner Fox, the JSA first appeared in All Star Comics #3 ....
, often "died" at the end of an encounter, only to have his surviving brain transplanted into a new (not always human) body by robots and/or henchmen. - The novel I Will Fear No EvilI Will Fear No EvilI Will Fear No Evil is a science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein, originally serialised in Galaxy and published in hardcover in 1970...
(1970) by Robert A. HeinleinRobert A. HeinleinRobert Anson Heinlein was an American science fiction writer. Often called the "dean of science fiction writers", he was one of the most influential and controversial authors of the genre. He set a standard for science and engineering plausibility and helped to raise the genre's standards of...
features an elderly wealthy man who has his brain transplanted into the body of his deceased secretary. - In the 1970s manga Black JackBlack Jack (manga)is a manga written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka in the 1970s, dealing with the medical adventures of the title character, doctor Black Jack....
by Osamu TezukaOsamu Tezukawas a Japanese cartoonist, manga artist, animator, producer, activist and medical doctor, although he never practiced medicine. Born in Osaka Prefecture, he is best known as the creator of Astro Boy, Kimba the White Lion and Black Jack...
, Black JackBlack Jack (character)is a fictional character created by Osamu Tezuka, introduced in Weekly Shōnen Champion on November 19, 1973.-Character:Black Jack is a medical mercenary, selling his skills to the highest bidder. He is a shadowy figure, with a black cape, eerie black-and-white hair, and stitched-up scars worming...
performs several brain transplants. - The movie The Thing with Two HeadsThe Thing with Two HeadsThe Thing with Two Heads is a 1972 film, starring Rosey Grier, Ray Milland and Don Marshall directed by Lee Frost, and written by Wes Bishop. Frost and Bishop also had parts in the movie....
(1972) featured a head transplant. - The comedy movie The Man with Two BrainsThe Man with Two BrainsThe Man with Two Brains is a 1983 American science fiction comedy film directed by Carl Reiner and starring Steve Martin and Kathleen Turner....
(1983), starring Steve Martin, revolves around brain transplantation. - Frederik PohlFrederik PohlFrederik George Pohl, Jr. is an American science fiction writer, editor and fan, with a career spanning over seventy years — from his first published work, "Elegy to a Dead Planet: Luna" , to his most recent novel, All the Lives He Led .He won the National Book Award in 1980 for his novel Jem...
's novel Black Star Rising (1985) features a character who has had parts of multiple brains grafted onto his, each conveying a separate personality. - The TV movie Who Is Julia? (1986) revolves also around brain transplantation.
- In "The Defenseless DeadThe Defenseless DeadThe Defenseless Dead is a novella in the Known Space universe by Larry Niven. It is the second of five Gil Hamilton detective stories. It was published in 1973 in the Roger Elwood anthology Ten Tomorrows....
", a short story by Larry NivenLarry NivenLaurence van Cott Niven / ˈlæri ˈnɪvən/ is an American science fiction author. His best-known work is Ringworld , which received Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, and Nebula awards. His work is primarily hard science fiction, using big science concepts and theoretical physics...
, a criminal tries to hide by this means. - The novel EvaEva (novel)Eva is a young adult science-fiction novel by Peter Dickinson, published in 1988. One of his best-known books, it received the Phoenix Award in 2008.-Plot introduction:...
by Peter DickinsonPeter DickinsonPeter Malcolm de Brissac Dickinson OBE is an English author and poet who has written a wide variety of books, notably children's books and detective stories, over a long and distinguished career.-Life and work:...
focuses on the eponymous 14-year-old girl whose brain is transplanted into the body of a chimpanzee. - The premise for the TV series Now and AgainNow and AgainNow and Again is an American television series that aired in the US from September 24, 1999 until May 5, 2000 on CBS. The story revolves around the United States government engineering the perfect human body for use in espionage, but not being able to yet perfect the brain...
(1999–2000) was the transplantation of lead character Michael Wiseman's brain into a genetically-engineered body to make him into a top-secret super-agent. - On the fictionalized version of the TV program Days of our LivesDays of our LivesDays of our Lives is a long running daytime soap opera broadcast on the NBC television network. It is one of the longest-running scripted television programs in the world, airing nearly every weekday in the United States since November 8, 1965. It has since been syndicated to many countries around...
as shown on FriendsFriendsFriends is an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, which aired on NBC from September 22, 1994 to May 6, 2004. The series revolves around a group of friends in Manhattan. The series was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television...
, the dead body of Dr. Drake Ramoray, the character played by Joey TribbianiJoey TribbianiJoseph Francis "Joey" Tribbiani, Jr. is a fictional character on the popular U.S. television sitcom Friends and the title character in the spin-off, Joey , portrayed by Matt LeBlanc....
(Matt LeBlancMatt LeBlancMatthew Steven "Matt" LeBlanc is an American actor, best known for his role as Joey Tribbiani on the NBC sitcoms Friends and its spin-off Joey....
), has the brain of another character transplanted into it. - The novel My Brother's Keeper by Charles SheffieldCharles SheffieldCharles Sheffield , was an English-born mathematician, physicist and science fiction author. He had been a President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America and of the American Astronautical Society....
is based on a partial brain transplant. Identical twins suffer major injuries in a crash, including damage to one side of each of their heads. One twin is dying from the loss of vital organs, so a surgeon saves part of his brain by using it to replace part of his brother's. - In the Cartoon NetworkCartoon Network (United States)Cartoon Network is an American cable television network owned by Turner Broadcasting which primarily airs animated programming. The channel was launched on October 1, 1992 after Turner purchased the animation studio Hanna-Barbera Productions in 1991...
movieTelevision movieA television film is a feature film that is a television program produced for and originally distributed by a television network, in contrast to...
Re-AnimatedRe-AnimatedOut of Jimmy's Head: Re-Animated is a live-action/animated television film that aired on Cartoon Network on December 8, 2006, the first original live action/animated production produced by the network.Re-Animated was released on DVD September 11, 2007...
(2006), the main character Jimmy Roberts (Dominic JanesDominic JanesDominic Janes is an American actor....
) has to receive an emergency brain transplant because of a freak accident. He receives the brain of the late Milt Appleday (a parody of Walt DisneyWalt DisneyWalter Elias "Walt" Disney was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, animator, entrepreneur, entertainer, international icon, and philanthropist, well-known for his influence in the field of entertainment during the 20th century. Along with his brother Roy O...
), and can see cartoon characters with his new brain. - In the novel AirheadAirhead (novel)Airhead is a young-adult novel by Meg Cabot. It was released on May 13, 2008. The sequel, Being Nikki was released in May 2009. The third book in the series Runaway has been released as well....
(2008) by Meg CabotMeg CabotMeg Cabot is anAmerican author of romantic and paranormal fiction for teens and adults and used to write under several pen names, but now writes exclusively under her real name, Meg Cabot...
, a normal girl gets a whole body transplant and thereafter lives as a supermodelSupermodelThe term supermodel refers to a highly-paid fashion model who usually has a worldwide reputation and often a background in haute couture and commercial modeling. The term became prominent in the popular culture of the 1980s. Supermodels usually work for top fashion designers and labels...
. - In the film The Man with the Screaming Brain, a similar concept is explored by having two partial brains inhabiting the same body.
- Wes CravenWes CravenWesley Earl "Wes" Craven is an American actor, film director, writer, producer, perhaps best known as the director of many horror films, particularly slasher films, including the famed A Nightmare on Elm Street and Wes Craven's New Nightmare, featuring the iconic Freddy Krueger character, the...
's book Fountain Society (1999) deals with this subject. - The Korean movie The Game (2007), directed by In-ho Yun, revolves around brain transplantation.
- In StarsiegeStarsiegeStarsiege is a mecha-style vehicle simulation game developed by Dynamix and released in 1999. Starsiege is set in the Metaltech/Earthsiege universe, which contains its predecessors Earthsiege , Battledrome , and Earthsiege 2 , as well as action game Hunter Hunted , strategy games Mission Force:...
(1999), a mecha-style vehicle simulation game, Harabec is dead, and the brain of Victor Petresun is occupying his body. - In SkinnedSkinnedSkinned is a young adult science fiction novel by Robin Wasserman, first published in 2008. It is the first book of the Skinned trilogy and was followed by Crashed and Wired.-Summary:...
by Robin WassermanRobin WassermanRobin Wasserman is an American young adult novelist.Wasserman grew up outside of Philadelphia and graduated from Harvard University and UCLA. Before she was an author she was an associate editor at a children's book publisher...
, the protagonist, Lia, is fatally injured in a car accident, and "downloaded" into a new, synthetic body.
Similar concepts
The whole-body transplant is just one of several means of putting a consciousness into a new body that have been explored by both scientists and writers.A similar procedure often found in science fiction is the transfer of one consciousness to another without moving the brain. This is found in many sources, most often a body swap
Body swap
A body swap is a storytelling device seen in a variety of fiction, most often in television shows and movies, in which two people exchange minds and end up in each other's bodies. Alternatively, their minds may stay where they are as their bodies adjust...
between two characters of an ongoing television series; it occurs in the original Star Trek
Star Trek: The Original Series
Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry, produced by Desilu Productions . Star Trek was telecast on NBC from September 8, 1966, through June 3, 1969...
series twice, as well as Freaky Friday
Freaky Friday
Freaky Friday is a classic comedic children’s novel written by Mary Rodgers first published in the USA in 1972, and adapted for film several times.-Plot:...
, Farscape
Farscape
Farscape is an Australian-American science fiction television series filmed in Australia and produced originally for the Nine Network. The series was conceived by Rockne S. O'Bannon and produced by Jim Henson Productions and Hallmark Entertainment...
, Stargate SG-1
Stargate SG-1
Stargate SG-1 is a Canadian-American adventure and military science fiction television series and part of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Stargate franchise. The show, created by Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner, is based on the 1994 feature film Stargate by Dean Devlin and Roland Emmerich...
, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Dollhouse
Dollhouse (TV series)
Dollhouse is an American science fiction television series created by writer and director Joss Whedon under Mutant Enemy Productions. It premiered on February 13, 2009, on the Fox network and was officially cancelled on November 11, 2009. The final episode aired on January 29, 2010...
, Red Dwarf
Red Dwarf
Red Dwarf is a British comedy franchise which primarily comprises eight series of a television science fiction sitcom that aired on BBC Two between 1988 and 1999 and Dave from 2009–present. It gained cult following. It was created by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor, who also wrote the first six series...
, Avatar; even in Archie comics. Since there is no movement of the brain(s), however, this is not quite the same as a whole-body transplant.
In horror, the film The Skeleton Key
The Skeleton Key
The Skeleton Key is a 2005 American supernatural horror film starring Kate Hudson, Gena Rowlands, John Hurt, Peter Sarsgaard, and Joy Bryant. The film focuses on a young hospice nurse who acquires a job at a Terrebonne Parish plantation home, and becomes entangled in a mystery involving the house,...
has the protagonist, Caroline, discover that the old couple she is looking after are really poor black Voodoo witch doctors, Mama Cecile and Papa Justify, who stole the bodies of two young privileged white children in their care using a ritual which allows a soul to swap bodies. Unfortunately the evil old couple also trick Caroline and their lawyer, Luke, into falling foul of the same procedure and both end up stuck in old dying bodies unable to speak while the witch doctors walk off with their young bodies. The theme of stealing another persons body is also repeated in the book The Tale of the Body Thief
The Tale of the Body Thief
The Tale of the Body Thief is the fourth novel in Anne Rice's The Vampire Chronicles series, following The Queen of the Damned. Published in 1992, it continues the adventures of Lestat, specifically his efforts to regain his lost humanity....
by Anne Rice. In this case the vampire Lestat discovers a man, Raglan James, who can will themselves into another persons body. He demands that the procedure is used on him to allow him to revert to being human once again. However, Lestat soon realises he has made an error and is forced to recapture James in his vampiric form so he can take his body back.
In the Star Wars Expanded Universe
Star Wars Expanded Universe
The Star Wars Expanded Universe encompasses all of the officially licensed, fictional background of the Star Wars universe, outside of the six feature films produced by George Lucas. The expanded universe includes books, comic books, video games, spin-off films like Star Wars: The Clone Wars,...
, Emperor Palpatine is able to transfer his consciousness into clone bodies. In a sense, this allows him to return to life after the Battle of Endor, as well as other events where his current body dies. The clone bodies aren't quite as good as his original body and waste quickly due to the decaying power of the Dark Side of the Force. Upon realizing this, he tries to take of the body of Anakin Solo, but is unsuccessful and eventually meets his final end.
Similar in many ways to this is the idea of mind uploading, promoted by Marvin Minsky
Marvin Minsky
Marvin Lee Minsky is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence , co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.-Biography:...
and others with a mechanistic view of natural intelligence and an optimistic outlook regarding artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its...
. It is also a goal of Raëlism
Raëlism
Raëlism is a UFO religion that was founded in 1974 by Claude Vorilhon, now known as Raël.The Raëlian Movement teaches that life on Earth was scientifically created by a species of extraterrestrials, which they call the Elohim...
, a small cult based in Florida, France, and Quebec. However, while 'transplanting' sees the ultimate goal as being a new body optimized for that brain by genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
, proteomics
Proteomics
Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The term "proteomics" was first coined in 1997 to make an analogy with...
, and/or other medical procedures and a transfer of the brain to that body, in the almost equally speculative procedure of 'downloading', the brain itself moves nowhere and may even be physically destroyed or discarded; the goal is rather to duplicate the information patterns contained within the brain.
Another similar literary theme, though different from either procedure described above, is the transplanting of a human brain into an artificial, usually robotic, body. Examples of this include: Caprica; Fullmetal Alchemist
Fullmetal Alchemist
, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hiromu Arakawa. The world of Fullmetal Alchemist is styled after the European Industrial Revolution...
; Ghost In The Shell
Ghost in the Shell
is a Japanese multimedia franchise composed of manga, animated films, anime series, video games and novels. It focuses on the activities of the counter-terrorist organization Public Security Section 9 in a futuristic, cyberpunk Japan ....
; RoboCop
RoboCop
RoboCop is a 1987 American science fiction-action film directed by Paul Verhoeven. Set in a crime-ridden Detroit, Michigan in the near future, RoboCop centers on a police officer who is brutally murdered and subsequently re-created as a super-human cyborg known as "RoboCop"...
; the DC Comics
DC Comics
DC Comics, Inc. is one of the largest and most successful companies operating in the market for American comic books and related media. It is the publishing unit of DC Entertainment a company of Warner Bros. Entertainment, which itself is owned by Time Warner...
superhero Robotman; the Cybermen from the Doctor Who
Doctor Who
Doctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor who explores the universe in a sentient time machine called the TARDIS that flies through time and space, whose exterior...
television series; the cymeks in the Legends of Dune
Legends of Dune
Legends of Dune is a prequel trilogy of novels written by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, set in Frank Herbert's Dune universe.* Dune: The Butlerian Jihad * Dune: The Machine Crusade * Dune: The Battle of Corrin...
series; or full-body cyborgs in many manga
Manga
Manga is the Japanese word for "comics" and consists of comics and print cartoons . In the West, the term "manga" has been appropriated to refer specifically to comics created in Japan, or by Japanese authors, in the Japanese language and conforming to the style developed in Japan in the late 19th...
or works in the cyberpunk
Cyberpunk
Cyberpunk is a postmodern and science fiction genre noted for its focus on "high tech and low life." The name is a portmanteau of cybernetics and punk, and was originally coined by Bruce Bethke as the title of his short story "Cyberpunk," published in 1983...
genre. In Star Trek
Star Trek: The Original Series
Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry, produced by Desilu Productions . Star Trek was telecast on NBC from September 8, 1966, through June 3, 1969...
, the episode "Spock's Brain" involves transplantation of the eponymous organ into a large computer-like structure, and in "I, Mudd" Uhura is offered immortality in an android body. The novel Harvest of Stars by Poul Anderson
Poul Anderson
Poul William Anderson was an American science fiction author who began his career during one of the Golden Ages of the genre and continued to write and remain popular into the 21st century. Anderson also authored several works of fantasy, historical novels, and a prodigious number of short stories...
features many central characters who undergo such transplants, and deals with the difficult decisions facing a human contemplating such a procedure.
See also
- Body swapBody swapA body swap is a storytelling device seen in a variety of fiction, most often in television shows and movies, in which two people exchange minds and end up in each other's bodies. Alternatively, their minds may stay where they are as their bodies adjust...
- Body swap appearances in mediaBody swap appearances in media- List of movies with body swaps :* A Walk in My Shoes*All Of Me - Female client into attorney, then into a jar of water, then into his buddy musician, then into her stablekeeper's daughter, the daughter finally into one of her horses.*13 Going on 30...
- Brain-computer interfaceBrain-computer interfaceA brain–computer interface , sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain–machine interface , is a direct communication pathway between the brain and an external device...
- Cyborgs in fictionCyborgs in fictionCyborgs are a prominent staple in the science fiction genre. This article summarizes notable instances of cyborgs in fiction.-Examples in history:...
(for stories of brains transplanted into wholly artificial bodies) - Donovan's BrainDonovan's BrainDonovan's Brain is a 1942 science fiction novel by Curt Siodmak.The novel has become something of a cult classic, with fans including Stephen King. King discusses the novel in his own book Danse Macabre and the line Cory uses to resist Donovan is repeated to similar effect in King's horror novel,...
- Head transplantHead transplantA head transplant is a surgical operation involving the grafting of an organism's head onto the body of another. It should not be confused with another, hypothetical, surgical operation, the brain transplant. Head transplantation involves decapitating the patient...
- I Will Fear No EvilI Will Fear No EvilI Will Fear No Evil is a science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein, originally serialised in Galaxy and published in hardcover in 1970...
- Isolated brainIsolated brainIsolated brain refers to keeping a brain alive in-vitro. This is done either by perfusion by a blood substitute, often an oxygenated solution of various salts, or by submerging the brain in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid . It is the biological counterpart of brain in a vat...
- Mind uploading (whole brain emulation)
- Mind uploading in fiction
- Organ transplantOrgan transplantOrgan transplantation is the moving of an organ from one body to another or from a donor site on the patient's own body, for the purpose of replacing the recipient's damaged or absent organ. The emerging field of regenerative medicine is allowing scientists and engineers to create organs to be...
- RaelismRaëlismRaëlism is a UFO religion that was founded in 1974 by Claude Vorilhon, now known as Raël.The Raëlian Movement teaches that life on Earth was scientifically created by a species of extraterrestrials, which they call the Elohim...
- Re-AnimatedRe-AnimatedOut of Jimmy's Head: Re-Animated is a live-action/animated television film that aired on Cartoon Network on December 8, 2006, the first original live action/animated production produced by the network.Re-Animated was released on DVD September 11, 2007...
- RoboticsRoboticsRobotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots...
External links
- Dr Robert White, profile by David Bennun in The Sunday Telegraph Magazine, 2000
- Today / Brain Transplants (BBC Radio4)
- FieldNotes: A mind is a terrible thing to waste, by Lou Jacobson (Lingua Franca)
- Dr. Robert J. White to Discuss "Rise and Fall of the Human Brain" (Lakeland Community College)
- From Science Fiction to Science: 'The Whole Body Transplant' (New York Times)
Spinal cord regeneration
- Researchers Stretch Nerve Fibers to New Limits (Fox News)
- Spinal Cord Bridge Bypasses Injury To Restore Mobility (EmaxHealth)
- Cancer-Causing Protein May Heal Damaged Spinal Cord & Brain Cells (Newswise.com)
- Swiss make breakthrough in spinal research: Novartis has started clinical trials into spinal cord regeneration (swissinfo.ch)