Isolated brain
Encyclopedia
_v2.png)
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
alive in-vitro. This is done either by perfusion
Perfusion
In physiology, perfusion is the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in the biological tissue. The word is derived from the French verb "perfuser" meaning to "pour over or through."...
by a blood substitute
Blood substitutes
A blood substitute is a substance used to mimic and fulfill some functions of biological blood, usually in the oxygen-carrying sense...
, often an oxygenated solution of various salts, or by submerging the brain in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid , Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear, colorless, bodily fluid, that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord...
(CSF) (Bohlen, Halbach). It is the biological counterpart of brain in a vat
Brain in a vat
In philosophy, the brain in a vat is an element used in a variety of thought experiments intended to draw out certain features of our ideas of knowledge, reality, truth, mind, and meaning...
. A related concept, attaching the brain or head to the circulatory system
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients , gases, hormones, blood cells, etc...
of another organism, is called a head transplant
Head transplant
A head transplant is a surgical operation involving the grafting of an organism's head onto the body of another. It should not be confused with another, hypothetical, surgical operation, the brain transplant. Head transplantation involves decapitating the patient...
. An isolated brain however is more typically attached to an artificial perfusion device rather than a biological body.
The brains of many different organisms have been kept alive in-vitro for hours, or in some cases days. The central nervous system of invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
animals is often easily maintained as they need less oxygen and to a larger extent get their oxygen from CSF, for this reason their brains are more easily maintained without perfusion (Luksch, Walkowiak). Mammalian brains on the other hand have a much lesser degree of survival without perfusion and an artificial blood perfusate is usually used.
Most research on isolating mammalian brains has been done on guinea pig
Guinea pig
The guinea pig , also called the cavy, is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia. Despite their common name, these animals are not in the pig family, nor are they from Guinea...
s, since they have larger cerebral arteries compared to rats or mice, which makes cannula
Cannula
A cannula or canula is a tube that can be inserted into the body, often for the delivery or removal of fluid or for the gathering of data...
tion for supplying artificial blood easier.
History
- 1812 - Julien Jean César Le Gallois (a.k.a. Legallois) put forth the original idea for resuscitating decapitated heads through the use of blood transfusion.
- 1818 - Mary ShelleyMary ShelleyMary Shelley was a British novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus . She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley...
published Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus - 1836 - Astley CooperAstley CooperSir Astley Paston Cooper, 1st Baronet was an English surgeon and anatomist, who made historical contributions to otology, vascular surgery, the anatomy and pathology of the mammary glands and testicles, and the pathology and surgery of hernia.-Life:Cooper was born at Brooke Hall in Brooke, Norfolk...
showed in rabbits that compression of the carotid and vertebral arteries leads to death of an animal; such deaths can be prevented if the circulation of oxygenated blood to the brain is rapidly restored. - 1857 - Charles Brown-SequardCharles-Édouard Brown-SéquardCharles-Édouard Brown-Séquard FRS , also known as Charles Edward, was a Mauritian physiologist and neurologist who, in 1850, became the first to describe what is now called Brown-Séquard syndrome.-Early life:...
decapitated a dog, waited ten minutes, attached four rubber tubes to the arterial trunks of the head, and injected blood containing oxygen by means of a syringe. Two or three minutes later voluntary movements of the eyes and muscles of the muzzle resumed. After cessation of oxygenated blood transfusion movements stopped. - 1887 - Jean Baptiste Vincent Laborde made what appears to be first recorded attempt to revive the heads of executed criminals by connecting the carotid artery of the severed human head to the carotid artery of a large dog. According to Laborde's account, in isolated experiments a partial restoration of brain function was attained.
- 1912 - Corneille HeymansCorneille HeymansCorneille Jean François Heymans was a Flemish physiologist. He studied at the prestigious Jesuit College of Sainte Barbe after which he proceeded to Ghent University, where he obtained a doctor's degree in 1920.After graduation Heymans worked at the Collège de France Corneille Jean François...
maintained life in an isolated dog's head by connecting the carotid arteryCarotid arteryCarotid artery can refer to:* Common carotid artery* External carotid artery* Internal carotid artery...
and jugular veinJugular veinThe jugular veins are veins that bring deoxygenated blood from the head back to the heart via the superior vena cava.-Internal and external:There are two sets of jugular veins: external and internal....
of the severed head to the carotid artery and jugular vein of another dog. Partial functioning in the severed head was maintained for a few hours. - 1928 - Sergey Bryukhonenko showedExperiments in the Revival of OrganismsExperiments in the Revival of Organisms is a 1940 motion picture which documents Soviet research into the resuscitation of clinically dead organisms. It is available from the Prelinger Archives, and it is in the public domain. The British scientist J. B. S...
life could be maintained in the severed head of a dog by connecting the carotid artery and jugular vein to an artificial circulation machine.,, - 1963 - Robert J. WhiteRobert J. WhiteRobert Joseph White was an American surgeon, best known for his head transplants on monkeys.-Biography:...
isolated the brain from one monkey and attached it to the circulatory system of another animal.
Isolated brains in fiction
The concept of a brain in a jar (or brain in a vatBrain in a vat
In philosophy, the brain in a vat is an element used in a variety of thought experiments intended to draw out certain features of our ideas of knowledge, reality, truth, mind, and meaning...
) is a common theme in science fiction.
Many people in the Ghost in the Shell
Ghost in the Shell
is a Japanese multimedia franchise composed of manga, animated films, anime series, video games and novels. It focuses on the activities of the counter-terrorist organization Public Security Section 9 in a futuristic, cyberpunk Japan ....
manga and anime franchise possess cyberbrains, which can sustain a modified human brain within a cybernetic body indefinitely.
In the Fallout series of games, isolated brains are used to control robots.
The Mi-go
Mi-go
The Mi-go are a race of extraterrestrials in the Cthulhu Mythos created by H. P. Lovecraft and others. The name was first applied to the creatures in Lovecraft's short story "The Whisperer in Darkness" , taking up a reference to 'What fungi sprout in Yuggoth' in his sonnet cycle Fungi from Yuggoth...
aliens in the Cthulhu Mythos
Cthulhu Mythos
The Cthulhu Mythos is a shared fictional universe, based on the work of American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft.The term was first coined by August Derleth, a contemporary correspondent of Lovecraft, who used the name of the creature Cthulhu - a central figure in Lovecraft literature and the focus...
of H. P. Lovecraft
H. P. Lovecraft
Howard Phillips Lovecraft --often credited as H.P. Lovecraft — was an American author of horror, fantasy and science fiction, especially the subgenre known as weird fiction....
, first appearing in the story "The Whisperer in Darkness
The Whisperer in Darkness
"The Whisperer in Darkness" is a short story by H. P. Lovecraft. Written February–September 1930, it was first published in Weird Tales, August 1931. Similar to "The Colour Out of Space" , it is a blend of horror and science fiction...
" (1931), can transport humans from Earth to Pluto (and beyond) and back again by removing the subject's brain and placing it into a "brain cylinder", which can be attached to external devices to allow it to see, hear, and speak.
In Alexander Beliaev
Alexander Beliaev
Alexander Romanovich Belyayev was a Russian and Soviet author of science fiction. His body of work from the 1920s and 1930s made him a highly regarded figure in Soviet science fiction...
's novel Head of Prof. Dowell (1925), Professor Dowell discovers a way of keeping heads of dead people alive and even to give them new bodies. After his death Dowell himself becomes a subject of such an experiment
In Donovan's Brain
Donovan's Brain
Donovan's Brain is a 1942 science fiction novel by Curt Siodmak.The novel has become something of a cult classic, with fans including Stephen King. King discusses the novel in his own book Danse Macabre and the line Cory uses to resist Donovan is repeated to similar effect in King's horror novel,...
(see term), the 1942 science fiction novel by Curt Siodmak
Curt Siodmak
Curt Siodmak was a novelist and screenwriter. He made a name for himself in Hollywood with horror and science fiction films, most notably The Wolf Man and Donovan's Brain...
(filmed three times in different versions: 1942, 1953 and 1962), the brain of a ruthless millionaire is kept alive in a tank where it grows to monstrous proportions and powers.
In Roald Dahl
Roald Dahl
Roald Dahl was a British novelist, short story writer, fighter pilot and screenwriter.Born in Wales to Norwegian parents, he served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, in which he became a flying ace and intelligence agent, rising to the rank of Wing Commander...
's short story "William and Mary
William and Mary (short story)
"William and Mary" is a short story by Roald Dahl, included in his 1960 collection Kiss Kiss. It was later adapted into episodes of Way Out and Tales of the Unexpected.-Plot summary:...
" (1960), after William's death his brain is kept alive on an artificial heart.
In the 1970s Doctor Who
Doctor Who
Doctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor who explores the universe in a sentient time machine called the TARDIS that flies through time and space, whose exterior...
serial The Brain of Morbius
The Brain of Morbius
The Brain of Morbius is a serial in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in four weekly parts from 3 January to 24 January 1976...
, Solon, an authority on micro-surgical techniques, transplants Morbius's brain into an artificial translucent brain cylinder casing. Additionally, in the modern Doctor Who series (2005–present), the recurring antagonists known as the Cybermen
Cyberman
The Cybermen are a fictional race of cyborgs who are amongst the most persistent enemies of the Doctor in the British science fiction television series, Doctor Who. Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more...
are presented as human brains (in one instance
The Pandorica Opens
"The Pandorica Opens" is the twelfth episode, and first in a two-part story, in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who, broadcast on 19 June 2010. The Doctor's friends send him a warning; he deals with a message on a cliff, a mysterious box and a love story that...
, an entire human head) encased in mechanical exoskeletons, connected by an artificial nervous system; this is ostensibly done as an "upgrade" from the comparatively fragile human body to a far more durable and longer-lasting shell. Another group of modern Who foes, the Toclafane, were revealed to be human heads encased in flying, weaponized spheres, the final forms of humans from the far future who turned to desperate measures in order to survive the conditions of the impending heat death of the universe
Heat death of the universe
The heat death of the universe is a suggested ultimate fate of the universe, in which the universe has diminished to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and therefore can no longer sustain motion or life. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that...
.
In the Legends of Dune
Legends of Dune
Legends of Dune is a prequel trilogy of novels written by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, set in Frank Herbert's Dune universe.* Dune: The Butlerian Jihad * Dune: The Machine Crusade * Dune: The Battle of Corrin...
prequel trilogy to the novel Dune
Dune (novel)
Dune is a science fiction novel written by Frank Herbert, published in 1965. It won the Hugo Award in 1966, and the inaugural Nebula Award for Best Novel...
, Cymeks are disembodied brains that wear robotic bodies.
The mad scientist in the French movie The City of Lost Children
The City of Lost Children
The City of Lost Children is a dystopian French fantasy/drama film by Marc Caro and Jean-Pierre Jeunet released in 1995. The film is stylistically related to the previous and subsequent Jeunet films, Delicatessen and Amélie. It was entered into the 1995 Cannes Film Festival.-Plot:A mad scientist,...
has a "brain in a vat" for a companion.
The B'omarr Monks, of the Star Wars
Star Wars
Star Wars is an American epic space opera film series created by George Lucas. The first film in the series was originally released on May 25, 1977, under the title Star Wars, by 20th Century Fox, and became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, followed by two sequels, released at three-year...
Universe, would surgically remove their brains from their bodies and continue their existence as a brain in a jar. They believe that cutting themselves off from civilization and all corporeal distractions leads to enlightenment. These monks are easily identified in Return of the Jedi as the spider like creature that walks past C-3PO
C-3PO
C-3PO is a robot character from the Star Wars universe who appears in both the original Star Wars films and the prequel trilogy. He is also a major character in the television show Droids, and appears frequently in the series' "Expanded Universe" of novels, comic books, and video games...
as he enters Jabba’s Palace.
Observer from Mystery Science Theater 3000
Mystery Science Theater 3000
Mystery Science Theater 3000 is an American cult television comedy series created by Joel Hodgson and produced by Best Brains, Inc., that ran from 1988 to 1999....
carries his brain in a Petri dish
Petri dish
A Petri dish is a shallow glass or plastic cylindrical lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells or small moss plants. It was named after German bacteriologist Julius Richard Petri, who invented it when working as an assistant to Robert Koch...
.
In the animated series Futurama
Futurama
Futurama is an American animated science fiction sitcom created by Matt Groening and developed by Groening and David X. Cohen for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series follows the adventures of a late 20th-century New York City pizza delivery boy, Philip J...
, numerous technological advances have been made by the 31st century. The ability to keep heads alive in jars was invented by Ron Popeil
Ron Popeil
Ronald M. Popeil is an American inventor and marketing personality, best known for his direct response marketing company Ronco...
(who has a guest cameo in "A Big Piece of Garbage
A Big Piece of Garbage
"A Big Piece of Garbage" is episode eight in season one of Futurama. It originally aired in North America on May 11, 1999. The episode was written by Lewis Morton and directed by Susie Dietter. Ron Popeil guest stars in this episode as himself. Nancy Cartwright also has a brief cameo as a Bart...
"), and has resulted in many political figures and celebrities being active; this became the writers' excuse to feature and poke fun at celebrities in the show.
A brainship
Brainship
A brainship is a fictional concept of an interstellar starship. A brainship is made by inserting the disembodied brain and nervous system of a human being into a life-support system, and connecting it surgically to a series of computers via delicate synaptic connections The brain "feels" the ship ...
is a fictional concept of an interstellar starship. A brainship is made by inserting the disembodied brain and nervous system or malformed body of a human being into a life-support system, and connecting it surgically to a series of computers via delicate synaptic connections (a Brain–computer interface.) The brain "feels" the ship (or any other connected peripherals) as part of its own body. An example, The Ship Who Sang
The Ship Who Sang
The Ship Who Sang is a science fiction novel by Anne McCaffrey, a fix-up of five stories published 1961 to 1969. Alternatively, "The Ship Who Sang" is the earliest of the stories, a novelette, which became the first chapter of the book...
(1969) short story collection by science fiction author Anne McCaffrey
Anne McCaffrey
Anne Inez McCaffrey was an American-born Irish writer, best known for her Dragonriders of Pern series. Over the course of her 46 year career she won a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award...
is about the brainship Helva.
The video game Cortex Command
Cortex Command
Cortex Command is a 2-dimensional side-scrolling action game developed by Data Realms. In the game, the player takes the role of a disembodied brain, who controls various clones and robots to achieve his aims. There is no campaign as of yet, so there is no main objective the player works towards...
revolves around the idea of brains being separated from physical bodies, and used to control units on a battlefield.
The science fantasy
Science fantasy
Science fantasy is a mixed genre within speculative fiction drawing elements from both science fiction and fantasy. Although in some terms of its portrayal in recent media products it can be defined as instead of being a mixed genre of science fiction and fantasy it is instead a mixing of the...
television series LEXX
LEXX
Lexx is a science fantasy television series that follows the adventures of a group of mismatched individuals aboard the organic space craft Lexx. They travel through two universes and encounter planets including a parody of the Earth....
includes a robot head containing human brain tissue.
In the Doctor Who
Doctor Who
Doctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a time-travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor who explores the universe in a sentient time machine called the TARDIS that flies through time and space, whose exterior...
episodes "The end of the world" and "New Earth" Lady casandra is an isolated brain attaced to a canvas of skin with a face.
In philosophy
In philosophyPhilosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, the brain in a vat is any of a variety of thought experiment
Thought experiment
A thought experiment or Gedankenexperiment considers some hypothesis, theory, or principle for the purpose of thinking through its consequences...
s intended to draw out certain features of our ideas about knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
, reality
Reality
In philosophy, reality is the state of things as they actually exist, rather than as they may appear or might be imagined. In a wider definition, reality includes everything that is and has been, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible...
, truth
Truth
Truth has a variety of meanings, such as the state of being in accord with fact or reality. It can also mean having fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal. In a common usage, it also means constancy or sincerity in action or character...
, mind
Mind
The concept of mind is understood in many different ways by many different traditions, ranging from panpsychism and animism to traditional and organized religious views, as well as secular and materialist philosophies. Most agree that minds are constituted by conscious experience and intelligent...
, and meaning
Meaning (non-linguistic)
A non-linguistic meaning is an actual or possible derivation from sentience, which is not associated with signs that have any original or primary intent of communication...
. A contemporary version of the argument originally given by Descartes in Meditations on First Philosophy (i.e., that he could not trust his perceptions on the grounds that an evil demon might, conceivably, be controlling his every experience), the brain in a vat is the idea that a brain can be fooled into anything when fed appropriate stimuli.
The inherently philosophical idea has also became a staple of many science fiction
Science fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
stories, with many such stories involving a mad scientist
Mad scientist
A mad scientist is a stock character of popular fiction, specifically science fiction. The mad scientist may be villainous or antagonistic, benign or neutral, and whether insane, eccentric, or simply bumbling, mad scientists often work with fictional technology in order to forward their schemes, if...
who might remove a person's brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
from the body, suspend it in a vat of life-sustaining liquid, and connect its neurons by wires to a supercomputer which would provide it with electrical impulses identical to those the brain normally receives. According to such science fiction stories, the computer would then be simulating a virtual reality
Virtual reality
Virtual reality , also known as virtuality, is a term that applies to computer-simulated environments that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds...
(including appropriate responses to the brain's own output) and the person with the "disembodied" brain would continue to have perfectly normal conscious experiences without these being related to objects or events in the real world.
Growing an isolated brain
Isolated biological "brains", grown from cultured neurons which were originally separated, have been developed. These are not the same thing as the brains of organisms, but they have been used to control some simple robotic systems.In 2004 Thomas DeMarse and Karl Dockendorf make an adaptive flight control with living neuronal networks on microelectrode arrays.
Teams at the Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Reading have created neurological entities integrated with a robot body. The brain receives input from sensors on the robot body and the resultant output from the brain provides the robot's only motor signals.
Further reading
- Chute-AL, Smyth-DH. Metabolism of the isolated perfused cat's brain. Quart J Exp Physiol 29:379-394 (1939).
- Geiger-A, Magnes-J. The isolation of the cerebral circulation and the perfusion of the brain in the living cat. Am J Physiol 149:517-536 (1947).
- Geiger-A. Correlation of brain metabolism and function by use of a brain perfusion method in situ. Physiol Rev 38:1-20 (1958).
- Geiger-A. Technique of brain perfusion in situ. Methods Med Res 9:248-254 (1961).
- Demikhov-VP. Transplantation of the Head. "Experimental Transplantation of Vital Organs". Consultants Bureau, New York (1962).
- Meder-R, Massopust-LC-Jr, White-RJ, Verdura-J, Albin-MS. Isolated brain perfusion—electromechanical system requirements. Proc 16th Ann Conf Eng Med Biol 5:28-29 (1963).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Verdura-J. Isolation of the monkey brain: in vitro preparation and maintenance. Science 141:1060 (1963).
- Gilboe-DD, Cotanch-WW, Glover—MB. Extracorporeal perfusion of the isolated head of a dog. Nature 202:399-400 (1964).
- Sano-K, Terao-H, Hayakawa-I, Kamano-S, Saito-I. Experimental transplantation of the head: two-headed dogs. Neurol Medicochir (Tokoyo) 6:35-38 (1964).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Verdura-J. Preservation of viability in the isolated monkey brain utilizing a mechanical extracorporeal circulation. Nature (Lond) 202:1082-1083 (1964).
- Gilboe-DD, Cotanch-WW, Glover-MB. Isolation and mechanical maintenance of the dog brain. Nature (Lond.) 206:94-96 (1965).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Locke-GE, Davidson-E. Brain transplantation: prolonged survival of brain after carotid-jugular interposition. Science 150:779 (1965).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Locke-GE, Davidson-E. Transplantation of the isolated canine brain. Physiologist 8:304 (1965).
- Suda-I, Kito-K, Adachi-C. Viability of long term frozen cat brain in vitro. Nature 212:268 (1966).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Locke-GE. Vascular preparation of the isolated canine brain. Anatomical Record 154:441 (1966).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Locke-GE. Whole brain preservation near 0 degrees C. Cryobiology 2:315 (1966).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Verdura-J, Locke-GE. Prolonged whole brain refrigeration with electrical and metabolic recovery. Nature 209:1320 (1966).
- Allweis-C, Abeles-M, Magnes-J. Perfusion of cat brain with simplified blood after filtration through glass wool. Amer J Physiol 213:83-86 (1967).
- Andjus-RK, Suhara-S, Sloviter-HA. An isolated, perfused rat brain preparation, its spontaneous and stimulated activity. J Appl Physiol 22:1033-1039 (1967).
- Sloviter-HA, Kamimoto-T. Erythrocyte substitute for perfusion of brain. Nature (lond) 216:458-460 (1967).
- Taslitz-N, Acosta-Rua-G, White-RJ, Albin-MS. The rat brain as an isolated organ preparation. Anat Rec 157:332 (1967).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Verdura-J, Locke-GE. The isolated monkey brain: operative preparation and design of support systems. J Neurosurg 27:216-225 (1967).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Locke-GE, Davidson-E. Preparation and metabolic performance of the transplanted brain. Surgical Forum 18:463 (1967).
- White-RJ, Albin-S, Yashon-D, Austin-J, Austin-P, Taslitz-N. Mechanical circulatory support of the failing brain. Trans Amer Soc Artif Int Organ 14:349-351 (1968).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS. Mechanical circulatory support of the isolated brain. "Organ perfusion and preservation." (Norman-JC, Folkman-J, Hardison-WG, Rudolf-LE, Veith-FJ eds). Appleton-Century Crofts, NY. (1968).
- White-RJ. "Experimental transplantation of the brain." Human Transplantation (Rapaport-FT, Dausset-J eds). pp 692–709 (1968).
- Thompson-AM, Robertson-RC, Bauer-TA. A rat head-perfusion technique developed for the study of brain uptake of materials. J Appl Physiol 24:407-411 (1968).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Yashon-D. Neuropathological investigation of the transplanted canine brain. Transplant Proceed 1:259 (1969).
- Clark-LC, Kaplan-S, Becattini-F, Benzing-G. Perfusion of whole animals with perfluorinated liquid emulsions using the Clark bubble-defoam heart-lung machine. Fed Proc Am Soc Exp Biol 29:1764-1770 (1970).
- Taslitz-N, White-RJ, Wolin-LR, Yashon-D. Adequacy of single carotid perfusion of the brain. Anatomical Record 166:388 (1970).
- White-RJ, Albin-MS, Yashon-D, Verdura-J, Austin-JC, Austin-PE-Jr, Demian-YK. Autoregulation in the isolated brain during profound hypothermia and hypercarbia. Brain and Blood Flow (Ross-RW ed). Pitman, London. pp. 209 (1970).
- Horst-WD, Jester-J. The use of isolated perfused rat brain in a study of 14-C-L-Dopa metabolism. Life Sci 10(I):685-689 (1971).
- Jahnchen-E, Krieglstein-J. Die aufnahme von promazin, chlorpromazin und deren desmethylmetaboliten in das isoliert perfundierte rattenhirn. Naunyn- Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmak 268:300-309 (1971).
- Mukherji-B, Turinsky-J, Sloviter-HA. Effects of perfusion without glucose on amino acids and glycogen of isolated rat brain. J Neurochem 18:1783-1785 (1971).
- Sloviter-HA, Yamada-H. Absence of direct action of insulin on metabolism of the isolated perfused rat brain. J Neurochem 18:1269-1274 (1971).
- White-RJ, Wolin-LR, Massopust-LC, Taslitz-N, Verdura-J. Primate cephalic transplantation: neurogenic separation, vascular association. Transplantation Proceedings 3:602-604 (1971).
- Vasan-NS, Abraham-J, Bachhawat-BK. Sulphate metabolism in acute EAE rats using isolated brain perfusion technique. J Neurochem 18:59-66 (1971).
- Zimmer-R, Lang-R, Oberdoister-G. Post-ischaemic reactive hyperaemia of the isolated perfused brain of dog. Pflugers Arch Ges Physiol 328:332-343 (1971).
- Fleck-WV, Krieglstein-J, Urban-W. Zwei apparaturen zur perfusion des isolierten rattenhirns. Arzneim-Forsch 22:1225-1230 (1972).
- Ghosh-AK, Mukherji-B, Sloviter-HA. Metabolism of isolated rat brain perfused with glucose or mannose as substrate. J Neurochem 19:1279-1285 (1972).
- Krieglstein-G, Krieglstein-J, Stock-R. Suitability of the isolated perfused rat brain for studying effects on cerebral metabolism. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 275:124-134 (1972).
- Krieglstein-G, Krieglstein-J, Urban-W. Long survival time of an isolated perfused rat brain (Short Communication). J Neurochem 19:885-886 (1972).
- Stock-R, Krieglstein-G, Krieglstein-J. Studies on energy metabolism of an isolated perfused rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 274:R112 (1972).
- Zivin-JA, Snarr-JF. A stable preparation for rat brain perfusion: effect of flow rate on glucose uptake. J Appl Physiol 32:658-663 (1972).
- Zivin-JA, Snarr-JF. Glucose and D(-)-3-hydroxybutyrate uptake by isolated perfused rat brain. J Appl Physiol 32:664-668 (1972).
- Fleck-W, Krieglstein-J, Reichmann-M. A two-circuit apparatus for the perfusion of the isolated rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 278:319-322 (1973).
- Gruner-J, Krieglstein-J, Rieger-H. Comparison of the effects of chloral hydrate and trichloroethanol on the EEG of the isolated perfused rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 277:333-348 (1973).
- Krieglstein-J, Stock-R. Comparative study of the effects of chloral hydrate and trichloroethanol on cerebral metabolism. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 277:323-332 (1973).
- Krieglstein-J, Stock-R, Rieger-H. Influence of therapeutic and toxic doses of neuroleptics and antidepressants on energy metabolism of the isolated perfused rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 279:243-254 (1973).
- Krieglstein-J, Stock-R. The isolated perfused rat brain as a model for studying drugs acting on the CNS. Psychopharmacologia 35:169-177 (1974).
- White-RJ. Hypothermic preservation and transplantation of brain. Resuscitation 4:197 (1975).
- Woods-HF, Graham-CW, Green-AR, Youdim-MBH, Grahame-Smith-DG, Highes-JT. Some histological and metabolic properties of an isolated perfused rat brain preparation with special reference to monoamine metabolism. Neuroscience 1:313-323 (1976).
- Woods-HF, Youdim-MBH. The isolated perfused rat brain preparation—a critical assessment. Essays Neurochem Neuropharmacol 3:49-69 (1978).
- Dirks-B, Krieglstein-J, Lind-HH, Rieger-H, Schutz-H. Fluorocarbon perfusion medium applied to the isolated rat brain. J Pharm Methods 4:95-108 (1980).
- Llinas-R, Yarom-Y, Sugimori-M. Isolated mammalian brain in vitro: new technique for analysis of electrical activity of neuronal circuit function. Fed Proc 40(8)-2240-2245 (1981).
- Shapovalov-AI, Shiriaev-BI, Tamarova-ZA. "A study of neuronal activity of mammalian superfused or intra-arterially perfused CNS preparations." Electrophysiology of isolated mammalian CNS preparations (Kerkut-GA, Wheal-HV eds). pp 367–394 (1981).