Swoon hypothesis
Encyclopedia
The Swoon Hypothesis refers to a number of theories that aim to explain the resurrection of Jesus
, proposing that Jesus didn't die on the cross
, but merely fell unconscious
("swooned"), and was later revived in the tomb
in the same mortal body. Although this hypothesis
has not been widely held by scholars, it has had noteworthy advocates for about two hundred years.
, who suggested in around 1780, that Jesus deliberately feigned his death, using drugs provided by the physician Luke
to appear as a spiritual messiah
and get Israel to abandon the idea of a political messiah. In this interpretation of the events described in the Gospels, Jesus was resuscitated by Joseph of Arimathea
, with whom he shared a connection through a secret order of the Essenes—a group that appear in many of the "swoon" theories.
Around 1800, Karl Venturini proposed that a group of supporters dressed in white — who were, with Jesus, members of a "secret society" — had not expected him to survive the crucifixion, but heard groaning from inside the tomb, where Jesus had regained consciousness in the cool, damp air. They then frightened away the guards and rescued him.
A third rationalist theologian, Heinrich Paulus
, wrote in various works from 1802 onwards that he believed that Jesus had fallen into a temporary coma and somehow revived without help in the tomb. He was critical of the vision hypothesis
, and argued that the disciples must have believed that God had resurrected Jesus. Friedrich Schleiermacher endorsed a form of Paulus' theory in the early 1830s.
A number of theories that suggest Jesus travelled to India also entail his survival of the crucifixion
. In particular, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
, the founder of the Ahmadiyya
Muslim Movement, spelled out this theory in his 1899 book Jesus in India.
, in their 1982 book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, speculated that Pontius Pilate
was bribed to allow Jesus to be taken down from the cross before he was dead. In 1992, Barbara Thiering
explored the theory in depth in her book Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls
. In 2006, Baigent published The Jesus Papers, a book that describes how Jesus may have survived the crucifixion. Other 20th-century proponents of various "swoon theories" include:
of South Africa whose book "Crucifixion or Cruci-fiction" has been widely printed and distributed all over the Muslim World. He takes a critical look at the events in the four Gospels and theorizes a scenario of events similar to the Swoon Hypothesis.
The Islamic position on the subject of crucifixion - which is a form of Docetism
- is highlighted in verse of the Qur'an
;
, the founder of the Ahmadiyya
movement,
the theological basis of the Ahmadi belief is that Jesus was only “in a swoon” when he was taken down from the cross. Ahmad argued that when Jesus was taken down from the cross, he had lapsed into a state similar to Jonah's state of "swoon" in the belly of a fish. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad interpreted the phrase in Deuteronomy
21:31: kī qilelat Elohim taluy, “… for a hanged man is the curse of God”, as suggesting that "God would never allow one of His true prophets to be brutally killed in such a degrading manner as crucifixion". Following his ordeal, Jesus was cured of his wounds with a special ointment known as the 'ointment of Jesus' (marham-i ʿIsā).”.
Further support is lent to the theory when Jesus' body in the Gospel narratives is quickly whisked away and hidden from public view. No elaborate funeral arrangements, no public viewing of the corpse are known to take place. The body is taken down from the cross and immediately handed over to a close disciple (Joseph of Arimathea
), who transports Jesus' body to a close-by roomy secure burial chamber.
A major reason to doubt this hypothesis is that the Gospel of John states that a soldier thrust a spear in Jesus' side before he was taken off the cross. However, the Gospel of John is the latest of the four canonical gospels, and neither of the remaining three contain this story. It is proposed that the thrust spear story is John's fabrication, intended to refute this precise theory.
, conclude that Jesus was definitively dead when removed from the cross. Many others consider it unlikely that Jesus would be capable of inspiring faith in those who saw him after barely surviving a crucifixion, including the 19th century rationalist theologian David Strauss
, who wrote:
, Bible commentator Frederick Charles Cook and Christian evangelist
author Josh McDowell
argue that the death of Jesus in the Gospels could not have been fabricated, as the text displays medical knowledge not available at the time. Haughton wrote that the description in the Gospel of John
of the flowing of "blood and water" after the soldier pierced Jesus' side with a spear was extremely prescient:
Medical authorities W. D. Edwards, W. J. Gabel and F. E. Hosmer offer the following analysis in regard to the New Testament Greek and the medical data:
Alexander Metherell concurs that, based on the gospel accounts, Jesus was dead when removed from the cross.
Resurrection of Jesus
The Christian belief in the resurrection of Jesus states that Jesus returned to bodily life on the third day following his death by crucifixion. It is a key element of Christian faith and theology and part of the Nicene Creed: "On the third day he rose again in fulfillment of the Scriptures"...
, proposing that Jesus didn't die on the cross
Crucifixion
Crucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
, but merely fell unconscious
Unconsciousness
Unconsciousness is the condition of being not conscious—in a mental state that involves complete or near-complete lack of responsiveness to people and other environmental stimuli. Being in a comatose state or coma is a type of unconsciousness. Fainting due to a drop in blood pressure and a...
("swooned"), and was later revived in the tomb
Tomb
A tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes...
in the same mortal body. Although this hypothesis
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. The term derives from the Greek, ὑποτιθέναι – hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose". For a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it...
has not been widely held by scholars, it has had noteworthy advocates for about two hundred years.
18th and 19th centuries
Early proponents of this theory include German Karl Friedrich BahrdtKarl Friedrich Bahrdt
Karl Friedrich Bahrdt , German theologian and adventurer, was born at Bischofswerda, Upper Lusatia, where his father, afterwards professor, canon and general superintendent at Leipzig, was pastor....
, who suggested in around 1780, that Jesus deliberately feigned his death, using drugs provided by the physician Luke
Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist was an Early Christian writer whom Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius said was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles...
to appear as a spiritual messiah
Messiah
A messiah is a redeemer figure expected or foretold in one form or another by a religion. Slightly more widely, a messiah is any redeemer figure. Messianic beliefs or theories generally relate to eschatological improvement of the state of humanity or the world, in other words the World to...
and get Israel to abandon the idea of a political messiah. In this interpretation of the events described in the Gospels, Jesus was resuscitated by Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph of Arimathea was, according to the Gospels, the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus' Crucifixion. He is mentioned in all four Gospels.-Gospel references:...
, with whom he shared a connection through a secret order of the Essenes—a group that appear in many of the "swoon" theories.
Around 1800, Karl Venturini proposed that a group of supporters dressed in white — who were, with Jesus, members of a "secret society" — had not expected him to survive the crucifixion, but heard groaning from inside the tomb, where Jesus had regained consciousness in the cool, damp air. They then frightened away the guards and rescued him.
A third rationalist theologian, Heinrich Paulus
Heinrich Paulus
Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus was a German theologian and critic of the Bible. He is known as a rationalist who offered natural explanations for the biblical miracles of Jesus....
, wrote in various works from 1802 onwards that he believed that Jesus had fallen into a temporary coma and somehow revived without help in the tomb. He was critical of the vision hypothesis
Vision hypothesis
The vision hypothesis is a term used to cover a range of theories that question the physical resurrection of Jesus, and suggest that sightings of a risen Jesus were visionary experiences. As the literal bodily resurrection of Jesus is a cornerstone of Christian belief, the vision hypothesis is...
, and argued that the disciples must have believed that God had resurrected Jesus. Friedrich Schleiermacher endorsed a form of Paulus' theory in the early 1830s.
A number of theories that suggest Jesus travelled to India also entail his survival of the crucifixion
Crucifixion
Crucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
. In particular, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad was a religious figure from India and the founder of the Ahmadiyya Community. He claimed to be the Mujaddid of the 14th Islamic century, the promised Messiah , and the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims in the end days...
, the founder of the Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious revivalist movement founded in India near the end of the 19th century, originating with the life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad , who claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies about the world reformer of the end times, who was to herald the Eschaton as...
Muslim Movement, spelled out this theory in his 1899 book Jesus in India.
20th century
Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry LincolnHenry Lincoln
Henry Lincoln is an English author, television presenter, scriptwriter and former Supporting actor. He co-wrote three Doctor Who multi-part serials in the 1960s, and —starting in the 1970s— authored a series of books and inspired documentaries for the British television channel BBC2,...
, in their 1982 book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, speculated that Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilatus , known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate , was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus' trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus...
was bribed to allow Jesus to be taken down from the cross before he was dead. In 1992, Barbara Thiering
Barbara Thiering
Barbara Thiering is an Australian nonfiction writer, historian, and Biblical exegete specialising in the origins of the early Christian Church. In books and journal articles, she challenges Christian orthodoxy, drawing on claimed new evidence that gives alternative answers to its supernatural...
explored the theory in depth in her book Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls
Jesus the Man (book)
Jesus the Man: New Interpretations from the Dead Sea Scrolls is a 1993 book written by the Australian biblical scholar and theologian Barbara Thiering...
. In 2006, Baigent published The Jesus Papers, a book that describes how Jesus may have survived the crucifixion. Other 20th-century proponents of various "swoon theories" include:
- Ernest Brougham Docker (1920, in If Jesus Did Not Die on the Cross)
- Robert GravesRobert GravesRobert von Ranke Graves 24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985 was an English poet, translator and novelist. During his long life he produced more than 140 works...
& Joshua Podro (1957, in Jesus in Rome) - Hugh J. SchonfieldHugh J. SchonfieldHugh Joseph Schonfield was a British Bible scholar specializing in the New Testament and the early development of the Christian religion and church. He was born in London, and educated there at St Paul's School and King's College, doing postgraduate religious studies in Glasgow, Doctor of Sacred...
(1965, in The Passover PlotThe Passover PlotThe Passover Plot is the name of a controversial, best-selling 1965 book, by British Biblical scholar Hugh J. Schonfield who has also published a translation of the New Testament informed with a Jewish perspective....
) - Donovan JoyceDonovan JoyceDonovan Maxwell Joyce is known as the author of the international best-seller The Jesus Scroll. Joyce, an Australian radio producer and author, was born in 1910 at Hawthorn, Melbourne. Educated at Scotch College, Hawthorn, on leaving education he was employed by the Broken Hill Proprietary Co...
(1972, in The Jesus ScrollThe Jesus ScrollThe Jesus Scroll was a best-selling book first published in 1972 and written by Australian author Donovan Joyce. A forerunner to some of the ideas later investigated in The Da Vinci Code, Joyce's book made the claim that Jesus of Nazareth may have actually died in 80 AD at Masada in Israel during...
) - J.D.M. DerrettJ Duncan M DerrettJohn Duncan Martin Derrett was Professor of Oriental Laws in the University of London, from 1965 to 1982, and is now Emeritus Professor....
(1982, in The Anastasis: The Resurrection of Jesus as an Historical Event) - Holger Kersten (1994, in Jesus lived in India)
Islamic Perspective
Perhaps the biggest proponent of the Swoon Hypothesis over the past 20 years has been Muslim scholar Ahmed DeedatAhmed Deedat
Ahmed Hussein Deedat was a Muslim writer and public speaker of Indian South African descent. He was best known for his numerous inter-religious public debates with evangelical Christians, as well as pioneering video lectures, most of which centered around Islam, Christianity and the Bible...
of South Africa whose book "Crucifixion or Cruci-fiction" has been widely printed and distributed all over the Muslim World. He takes a critical look at the events in the four Gospels and theorizes a scenario of events similar to the Swoon Hypothesis.
The Islamic position on the subject of crucifixion - which is a form of Docetism
Docetism
In Christianity, docetism is the belief that Jesus' physical body was an illusion, as was his crucifixion; that is, Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and to physically die, but in reality he was incorporeal, a pure spirit, and hence could not physically die...
- is highlighted in verse of the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
;
- "and for their unbelief, and their uttering against Mary a mighty calumny, and for their saying, 'We slew the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, the Messenger of God' -- yet they did not slay him, neither crucified him, only a likeness of that was shown to them". (AJ Arberry)
Ahmadiyya Islam Perspective
According to the late 19th Century writings of Mirza Ghulam AhmadMirza Ghulam Ahmad
Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad was a religious figure from India and the founder of the Ahmadiyya Community. He claimed to be the Mujaddid of the 14th Islamic century, the promised Messiah , and the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims in the end days...
, the founder of the Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious revivalist movement founded in India near the end of the 19th century, originating with the life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad , who claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies about the world reformer of the end times, who was to herald the Eschaton as...
movement,
the theological basis of the Ahmadi belief is that Jesus was only “in a swoon” when he was taken down from the cross. Ahmad argued that when Jesus was taken down from the cross, he had lapsed into a state similar to Jonah's state of "swoon" in the belly of a fish. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad interpreted the phrase in Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy
The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible, and of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch...
21:31: kī qilelat Elohim taluy, “… for a hanged man is the curse of God”, as suggesting that "God would never allow one of His true prophets to be brutally killed in such a degrading manner as crucifixion". Following his ordeal, Jesus was cured of his wounds with a special ointment known as the 'ointment of Jesus' (marham-i ʿIsā).”.
Supporting arguments
It is said to have been uncommon for a crucified healthy adult to die in the period of time described by the Gospels. The Gospel of Mark reports that Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning, and died at three in the afternoon, or just six hours after the crucifixion. Pilate was surprised to hear that Jesus had died so soon (Mk 15:44). The average time of suffering before death by crucifixion is stated to be about 2-4 days, and there were reported cases where the victims lived for as long as 9 days.Further support is lent to the theory when Jesus' body in the Gospel narratives is quickly whisked away and hidden from public view. No elaborate funeral arrangements, no public viewing of the corpse are known to take place. The body is taken down from the cross and immediately handed over to a close disciple (Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph of Arimathea was, according to the Gospels, the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus' Crucifixion. He is mentioned in all four Gospels.-Gospel references:...
), who transports Jesus' body to a close-by roomy secure burial chamber.
A major reason to doubt this hypothesis is that the Gospel of John states that a soldier thrust a spear in Jesus' side before he was taken off the cross. However, the Gospel of John is the latest of the four canonical gospels, and neither of the remaining three contain this story. It is proposed that the thrust spear story is John's fabrication, intended to refute this precise theory.
Jesus' State of Health
The Swoon Hypothesis has been criticized by many, including medical experts who, based on the account given in the New TestamentNew Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
, conclude that Jesus was definitively dead when removed from the cross. Many others consider it unlikely that Jesus would be capable of inspiring faith in those who saw him after barely surviving a crucifixion, including the 19th century rationalist theologian David Strauss
David Strauss
David Friedrich Strauss was a German theologian and writer. He scandalized Christian Europe with his portrayal of the "historical Jesus," whose divine nature he denied...
, who wrote:
- "It is impossible that a being who had stolen half dead out of the sepulchre, who crept about weak and ill and wanting medical treatment... could have given the disciples the impression that he was a conqueror over death and the grave, the Prince of life: an impression that lay at the bottom of their future ministry."
Medical Arguments
Using the work of the 19th century University of Dublin physiologist and ordained priest Samuel HaughtonSamuel Haughton
Samuel Haughton was an Irish scientific writer.-Biography:He was born in Carlow, the son of James Haughton ....
, Bible commentator Frederick Charles Cook and Christian evangelist
Evangelism
Evangelism refers to the practice of relaying information about a particular set of beliefs to others who do not hold those beliefs. The term is often used in reference to Christianity....
author Josh McDowell
Josh McDowell
Joslin "Josh" McDowell is a Christian apologist, evangelist, and writer. He is within the Evangelical tradition of Protestant Christianity, and is the author or co-author of some 77 books. His best-known book is Evidence That Demands a Verdict, which was ranked 13th in Christianity Today's list of...
argue that the death of Jesus in the Gospels could not have been fabricated, as the text displays medical knowledge not available at the time. Haughton wrote that the description in the Gospel of John
Gospel of John
The Gospel According to John , commonly referred to as the Gospel of John or simply John, and often referred to in New Testament scholarship as the Fourth Gospel, is an account of the public ministry of Jesus...
of the flowing of "blood and water" after the soldier pierced Jesus' side with a spear was extremely prescient:
- "... With the foregoing cases most anatomists who have devoted their attention to this subject are familiar; but the two following cases, although readily explicable on physiological principles, are not recorded in the books (except by St. John). Nor have I been fortunate enough to meet with them."
Medical authorities W. D. Edwards, W. J. Gabel and F. E. Hosmer offer the following analysis in regard to the New Testament Greek and the medical data:
- "Jesus of Nazareth underwent Jewish and Roman trials, was flogged, and was sentenced to death by crucifixion. The scourging produced deep stripelike lacerations and appreciable blood loss, and it probably set the stage for hypovolemic shock, as evidenced by the fact that Jesus was too weakened to carry the crossbar (patibulum) to Golgotha. At the site of crucifixion, his wrists were nailed to the patibulum and, after the patibulum was lifted onto the upright post (stipes), his feet were nailed to the stipes. The major pathophysiologic effect of crucifixion was an interference with normal respirations. Accordingly, death resulted primarily from hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia. Jesus' death was ensured by the thrust of a soldier's spear into his side. Modern medical interpretation of the historical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead when taken down from the cross."
Alexander Metherell concurs that, based on the gospel accounts, Jesus was dead when removed from the cross.
See also
- CrucifixionCrucifixionCrucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
and Resurrection of JesusResurrection of JesusThe Christian belief in the resurrection of Jesus states that Jesus returned to bodily life on the third day following his death by crucifixion. It is a key element of Christian faith and theology and part of the Nicene Creed: "On the third day he rose again in fulfillment of the Scriptures"... - Vision hypothesisVision hypothesisThe vision hypothesis is a term used to cover a range of theories that question the physical resurrection of Jesus, and suggest that sightings of a risen Jesus were visionary experiences. As the literal bodily resurrection of Jesus is a cornerstone of Christian belief, the vision hypothesis is...
- Stolen body hypothesisStolen body hypothesisThe stolen body hypothesis posits that the body of Jesus Christ was stolen from his burial place. His tomb was found empty not because he was resurrected, but because the body had been hidden somewhere else by the apostles or unknown persons. Both the stolen body hypothesis and the debate over it...
- Historical JesusHistorical JesusThe term historical Jesus refers to scholarly reconstructions of the 1st-century figure Jesus of Nazareth. These reconstructions are based upon historical methods including critical analysis of gospel texts as the primary source for his biography, along with consideration of the historical and...
- Historicity of JesusHistoricity of JesusThe historicity of Jesus concerns how much of what is written about Jesus of Nazareth is historically reliable, and whether the evidence supports the existence of such an historical figure...
- Empty tombEmpty tombEmpty tomb most often refers to the tomb of Jesus which was found to be empty by the women who were present at Jesus’ crucifixion. They had come to his tomb to anoint his body with spices...
- Religious perspectives on JesusReligious perspectives on JesusThe religious perspectives on Jesus vary among major world religions. Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his lifestory have significantly influenced the course of human history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians.Christian consider Jesus...