Robert C. Richardson III
Encyclopedia
Robert Charlwood Richardson III (5 January 1918 – 2 January 2011) was an officer, first of the United States Army Air Corps
, then with the United States Air Force
, eventually attaining the rank of Brigadier General. A leader in the early days of the U.S. Air Force, he was a renowned expert in tactical nuclear warfare, NATO, and military long range planning. In his early career he is known for his controversial involvement in the World War II "Laconia Incident."
. In 1932, he attended the Gunnery School in Washington, Connecticut
, and in 1933, entered Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne, Pennsylvania
, graduating in 1935. He received a congressional appointment from Pennsylvania
to the United States Military Academy
and graduated in June 1939. He joined the expanding U.S. Army Air Forces
attending pilot training schools in Tulsa, Oklahoma
, Randolph
and Kelly
fields, Texas, graduating in June 1940. In July 1940, he was assigned as a flight instructor at Randolph
Field flying AT-6 Texan and AT-7 Navigator training aircraft and subsequently in the advanced twin-engine school at Barksdale Field
, Louisiana
flying B-10 Martin
bomber. In September 1941, he was transferred to the 52nd Fighter Group, Selfridge Field, Michigan
, served as squadron commander and group operations officer flying P-40 Warhawk pursuit aircraft, and went with the Group to Norfolk, Virginia
, and Florence, South Carolina
.
In April 1942, he took command of the 1st Composite Squadron, a unit of 18 P-39D Airacobra pursuit aircraft and 5 B-25C Mitchell
bombers being organized at Key Field, Meridian, Mississippi
. He deployed, in August 1942, to the newly constructed and secret Wideawake Airfield on Ascension Island
in the South Atlantic Ocean. Their function was to patrol the sea around the island, to detect and destroy any enemy submarines and surface raiders, and to protect Allied ships in the vicinity of the island. Wideawake Airfield was a key refueling base on the only air resupply route in 1942-1943 connecting the United States to the Allied Western Desert Campaign
raging in North Africa and the Soviet forces through the Persian Gulf and the Caucuses. The air route stretched from Florida and Texas across the Caribbean region, down the South American east coast to Natal
and Recife
Brazil], across the South Atlantic through Ascension Island to the British and Belgian colonies in West Africa, across the bottom of the Sahara Desert to Khartoum
Sudan, and up the Nile to Egypt and Allied forces in the Middle East and beyond. This was the only way to get large-to-medium aircraft and urgent military supplies to Allied forces in Egypt (specifically 9th Air Force supporting United States Army Forces in the Middle East (USAFIME)
) in the Allied 1943 Egypt-Libya Campaign
leading up to the defeat of Rommel and securing North Africa following Operation Torch
and the Tunisia Campaign
in late 1943.
On early 15 September 1942, while senior operations officer at Ascension, then Captain Richardson was notified by the island's British liaison that the had been torpedoed. Later that morning a transiting A-20 reported sighting and taking fire from two German U-boats. Two dispatched B-25 bombers found neither the submarines nor the Laconia. Later that night (~22:00 hrs) Capt Richardson was asked to assist in rescue efforts by providing air cover for the en-route merchant ships, the nearby Empire Haven and the HMS Corinthian at Takoorida. The next day a transiting B-24D Liberator
from the 343rd Bombardment Squadron was sent to investigate and found four U-boats displaying the Red Cross flag engaged in rescue operations from the sinking of Laconia. The U-Boat commander, Lt Cmdr Werner Hartenstein
, had secured permission to conduct rescue operations after discovering that the ship he had just torpedoed, RMS Laconia, carried 1,800 Italian prisoners, a few hundred British and Polish soldiers, plus some number of civilians including women and children, British dependents from Egypt. U-156 was crammed above and below decks with nearly two hundred survivors, including five women, and had another 200 in tow aboard four lifeboats. The patrolling bomber loaded with depth charges and bombs reported that the submarine had a white flag with a red cross and they had unsuccessfully challenged the submarine via radio to display its national flag. The submarine blinked via signal light that the bomber crew understood to say "German Sir". The bomber crew asked Ascension Island what to do next.
The German navy had notified the British authorities of the rescue operations, but the British thought it was a trick and did not communicate it to the U.S. forces at the secret Wideawake Airfield on Ascension. Captain Richardson, not knowing that this was a Red Cross sanctioned German rescue operation, made a tactical assessment of the potential threat that the U-boats posed to the en-route, unarmed British rescue ships and that the U-boats could discover and shell the airfield and its vulnerable fuel tanks, thus cutting off this critical allied air route; Captain Richardson ordered the B-24 crew to "bomb the sub". After the (unsuccessful) attack ordered by Richardson, the U-boats under German navy command orders stopped all rescue operations and departed the area. A majority of survivors were later rescued by British merchant ships and two unarmed Vichy French
warships, the cruiser Gloire and the sloop Annamite, out of Dakar
, Africa.
This action became known as the Laconia incident
and led Admiral Karl Dönitz
, chief of German Submarine Operations, to issue the "Laconia Order" to his U-boat commanders that stated in part "No attempt of any kind must be made at rescuing members of ships sunk...." At the end of the war, the Laconia Order was unsuccessfully used against Admiral Dönitz in his war crime trial, because Fleet Admiral Nimitz testified that in the war with Japan the U.S. Navy had followed the same general policy as was set forth in the German admiral's directive. The Laconia Incident showed how a small tactical decision can have strategic impact across history.
s via the South Atlantic air route. In March 1943, Richardson was ordered back to the United States as the project officer and flight leader to make good his boast that he could to ferry P-38 Lightning
s to North Africa
via the South Atlantic. In April 1943, he successfully delivered 52 of the original 53 aircraft to Morocco to reinforce U.S. air forces supporting Operation TORCH, a real feat of airmanship. From there he was assigned back to the United States as chief of the Aircraft Division, and later as chief of the Fighter Division, Army Air Force Board, Orlando, Florida
where he had the opportunity to test fly a number of the experimental aircraft to include the XP-59A, Airacomet
, the first U.S. jet fighter, then undergoing testing at Muroc Army Air Field (today, Edwards Air Force Base
) in California
.
In July 1944, he was reassigned to the Operations Division, Headquarters U.S. Strategic Air Force in Europe. He spent the first month touring European fighter units briefing them on what he learned from flying the XP-59A, Airacomet
, the first U.S. jet fighter, and on suggested tactics to use against the new German jet aircraft. He then served as an action officer in General Carl Spaatz
's headquarters in London and Paris through December 1944 where he coordinated what new equipment and weapons coming from the CONUS based Army Force Board with what the European combat units said they needed and experienced. In January 1945, he transferred to the Operations Division of Headquarters, IX Tactical Air Command
, Ninth Air Force
. In April 1945, he assumed command of the 365th Fighter Group
, "The Hell Hawks," at Fritzlar
, Germany. He led the unit in their support of the General Patton's final push into Germany then transitioned the P-47 Thunderbolt
fighter group from wartime to peacetime operations. Upon the redeployment of the 365th Fighter Group back to the United States in September 1945, he remained in the Occupation Forces as chief of the Aircraft Allocation Division, Headquarters, U.S. Air Forces in Europe. In February 1946, he became assistant chief of staff for operations, European Air Transport Service where it was his task to round up, account for, and dispose of all the U.S. aircraft in the European Theater as the U.S. Army Air Corp rapidly demobilized and sent units back to the United States.
. In July 1947, he was transferred to the Joint War Plans Committee, which in December 1947, upon implementation of the 1947 Unification Act
, became Joint Strategic Plans Group, Joint Chiefs of Staff
. Upon creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in 1949, newly promoted Colonel Richardson became the first Air Force planner on the NATO Standing Group.
As one of the original NATO war planners, he prepared the European Theater war plans on how to counter a potential Cold War invasion by the overwhelming Soviet
land forces that outnumbered US and NATO conventional forces by a factor of 10 to 1. He worked the negotiation of an agreement for Germany's rearmament and for the establishment of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE) in Paris France. In February 1951, Col Richardson accompanied General Lauris Norstad
to Europe as a member of his planning staff. In July 1951, he was designated as the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff representative and military observer to the European Defense Community Treaty Conference in Paris. In July 1953, he was assigned to the Plans Staff of the Air Deputy, SHAPE, when responsibility for U.S. military advice to the European Defense Community was transferred from the U.S. Ambassador to the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. From July 1953 to July 1955, Richardson was special assistant to Air Vice Marshal Huddleston
, Royal Air Force
, Deputy Chief of Staff/Operations SHAPE, and later, the deputy director/policy, Headquarters SHAPE, serving primarily as the U.S. Air Force member of the Inter-Allied Planning Committee (New Approach Group) that developed the concept for an atomic defense of Europe. In that capacity he wrote the original NATO atomic or nuclear war plans and became one of the U.S. military's leading authorities on tactical nuclear warfare
, strategy, and concepts.
In July 1955, Col Richardson returned to the United States to attend the National War College
, graduating in June 1956. He assumed command of the 83rd Fighter Wing (redesignated 4th Fighter Wing
) flying F-86H Sabre and re-opened Seymour Johnson Air Force Base
, North Carolina
.
in the Air University Review. As a result, Col Richardson had become an acknowledged military expert in nuclear warfare
and a regular lecturer on the subject at the National Defense College
and Air War College
. In January 1958, he was transferred to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, to become assistant for Long Range Objectives to the deputy chief of staff/plans and programs. He was promoted to brigadier general
in May 1960.
With the installation of the new Kennedy Administration, Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara directed the dismantlement of the Air Force and Navy long range plans staffs and ordered the services’ long range planning experts out of Washington and into the field. This along with imposing a more restrictive editorial policy on the military services’ strategy journals removed the services’ key thinkers from the Washington debates arising from the administration’s new strategic direction with regard to military procurement and military strategy development. As a result in June 1961, Gen Richardson was transferred to the Military Assistance Division, Headquarters U.S. European Command, Paris, France, and upon arrival was detailed by General Norstad as director of operations for Live Oak, the Tripartite Berlin Plans and Operations Group air force team that coordinated and executed the NATO air responses to the Soviet attempts close down the Berlin air corridors during the Berlin Crisis
. Upon termination of the Berlin Crisis, Gen Richardson was assigned as deputy standing group representative, NATO, effective 1 January 1962 through 1 January 1964.
(AFSC), Andrews Air Force Base
, Maryland
. He served as assistant to the commander, then assistant deputy chief of staff for plans, and in August 1965, he was assigned as the deputy chief of staff for science and technology. On 31 July 1966, he reported to Field Command, Defense Atomic Support Agency.
His final military assignment was to Headquarters Field Command, Defense Atomic Support Agency, Sandia Base
, New Mexico
, as deputy commander for weapons and training where he was responsible for managing atomic weapon development and training activities and the nuclear weapons stockpile.
, as a senior associate with Schriever & McKee Associate Consultants to bring his aerospace and systems management expertise to bear on the issues facing urban America.
In the 1970s, Gen Richardson greatly expanded his work as an author, lecturer, and policy advocate in the areas of national security, defense theory, defense policy formulation, nuclear strategy, defense technology acquisition, and long range planning. During this decade, he actively advocated conservative viewpoints regarding defense and national security public policy issues serving as
As recognized authority on tactical nuclear warfare
and defense technology acquisition, he also served as consultant to Los Alamos National Laboratory
(1971–1979), US and European aerospace industries
, and Stanford Research Institution (1973-1974).
In 1981, Gen Richardson teamed up with Lt Gen Daniel O. Graham USA (ret)
on a Heritage Foundation
project called High Frontier
to formulate a long-term national strategy and plan to build a U.S. space-based missile defense. This plan, “High Frontier: A New National Strategy,” was the foundation for President Ronald Reagan
’s Strategic Defense Initiative
. Gen Richardson went on to serve as Deputy Directory for the High Frontier non-profit organization from 1981 to 2003 that not only advocated the maximum use of U.S. space technology for missile defense but also for the industrial and commercial use of space. Over the two decades he was with High Frontier, Gen Richardson successfully advocated for President Ronald Reagan
’s Strategic Defense Initiative
, established the Space Transportation Association, advocated the single-stage-to-orbit (or SSTO) vehicle as a follow-on to the Space Shuttle
, and more recently, helped develop a long-term strategy to colonize the Moon.
"Atomic Weapons and War Damage," ORBIS, spring 1960;
"Do We Need Unlimited Forces for Limited War," Air Force Magazine, March 1959;
"Forces in Being - The Weapons," Air Force Magazine, August 1958;
"In The Looking Glass," Air University Review, winter 1957-1958;
"Nuclear Stalemate Fallacy," Air Force Magazine, August 1956;
"Atomic Weapons and Theater Warfare" (four articles) Air University Review, winter and spring 1955;
"The U.S. Air Force and NATO," Air University Review, winter 1952-1953;
and "Defense on the Technological Front," Air Force Magazine, June 1966.
Gen Richardson was a Command pilot with over 3500 flying hours in the following U.S. military aircraft
United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was a forerunner of the United States Air Force. Renamed from the Air Service on 2 July 1926, it was part of the United States Army and the predecessor of the United States Army Air Forces , established in 1941...
, then with the United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
, eventually attaining the rank of Brigadier General. A leader in the early days of the U.S. Air Force, he was a renowned expert in tactical nuclear warfare, NATO, and military long range planning. In his early career he is known for his controversial involvement in the World War II "Laconia Incident."
Early career
Richardson was born in Rockford, IllinoisRockford, Illinois
Rockford is a mid-sized city located on both banks of the Rock River in far northern Illinois. Often referred to as "The Forest City", Rockford is the county seat of Winnebago County, Illinois, USA. As reported in the 2010 U.S. census, the city was home to 152,871 people, the third most populated...
. In 1932, he attended the Gunnery School in Washington, Connecticut
Washington, Connecticut
Washington is a rural town in Litchfield County, Connecticut, in the New England region of the United States. The population was 3,596 at the 2000 census. Washington is known for its picturesque countryside, historic architecture, and active civic and cultural life...
, and in 1933, entered Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne, Pennsylvania
Wayne, Pennsylvania
Wayne is an unincorporated community located on the Main Line, centered in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States. While the center of Wayne is in Radnor Township, Wayne extends into both Tredyffrin Township in Chester County and Upper Merion Township in Montgomery County...
, graduating in 1935. He received a congressional appointment from Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
to the United States Military Academy
United States Military Academy
The United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. The academy sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River, north of New York City...
and graduated in June 1939. He joined the expanding U.S. Army Air Forces
United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force....
attending pilot training schools in Tulsa, Oklahoma
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Tulsa is the second-largest city in the state of Oklahoma and 46th-largest city in the United States. With a population of 391,906 as of the 2010 census, it is the principal municipality of the Tulsa Metropolitan Area, a region with 937,478 residents in the MSA and 988,454 in the CSA. Tulsa's...
, Randolph
Randolph Air Force Base
Randolph Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located east-northeast of San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 902d Mission Support Group, Air Education and Training Command ....
and Kelly
Kelly Air Force Base
Kelly Field Annex and is a former United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. In 2001, the runway and land west of the runway became "Kelly Field Annex" and control of it was transferred to the adjacent Lackland Air Force Base, part of Joint Base San Antonio...
fields, Texas, graduating in June 1940. In July 1940, he was assigned as a flight instructor at Randolph
Randolph Air Force Base
Randolph Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located east-northeast of San Antonio, Texas. The base is under the jurisdiction of the 902d Mission Support Group, Air Education and Training Command ....
Field flying AT-6 Texan and AT-7 Navigator training aircraft and subsequently in the advanced twin-engine school at Barksdale Field
Barksdale Air Force Base
Barksdale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately east-southeast of Bossier City, Louisiana.The host unit at Barksdale is the 2d Bomb Wing , the oldest Bomb Wing in the Air Force. It is assigned to the Air Force Global Strike Command's Eighth Air Force...
, Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
flying B-10 Martin
Martin B-10
The Martin B-10 was the first all-metal monoplane bomber to go into regular use by the United States Army Air Corps, entering service in June 1934...
bomber. In September 1941, he was transferred to the 52nd Fighter Group, Selfridge Field, Michigan
Michigan
Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
, served as squadron commander and group operations officer flying P-40 Warhawk pursuit aircraft, and went with the Group to Norfolk, Virginia
Norfolk, Virginia
Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. With a population of 242,803 as of the 2010 Census, it is Virginia's second-largest city behind neighboring Virginia Beach....
, and Florence, South Carolina
Florence, South Carolina
-Municipal government and politics:The City of Florence has a council-manager form of government. The mayor and city council are elected every four years, with no term limits...
.
On Ascension Island
B-25 Mitchell
The North American B-25 Mitchell was an American twin-engined medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation. It was used by many Allied air forces, in every theater of World War II, as well as many other air forces after the war ended, and saw service across four decades.The B-25 was named...
bombers being organized at Key Field, Meridian, Mississippi
Meridian, Mississippi
Meridian is the county seat of Lauderdale County, Mississippi. It is the sixth largest city in the state and the principal city of the Meridian, Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area...
. He deployed, in August 1942, to the newly constructed and secret Wideawake Airfield on Ascension Island
Ascension Island
Ascension Island is an isolated volcanic island in the equatorial waters of the South Atlantic Ocean, around from the coast of Africa and from the coast of South America, which is roughly midway between the horn of South America and Africa...
in the South Atlantic Ocean. Their function was to patrol the sea around the island, to detect and destroy any enemy submarines and surface raiders, and to protect Allied ships in the vicinity of the island. Wideawake Airfield was a key refueling base on the only air resupply route in 1942-1943 connecting the United States to the Allied Western Desert Campaign
Western Desert Campaign
The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the initial stage of the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces, operating from besieged Malta, to...
raging in North Africa and the Soviet forces through the Persian Gulf and the Caucuses. The air route stretched from Florida and Texas across the Caribbean region, down the South American east coast to Natal
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte
-History:The northeastern tip of South America, Cabo São Roque, to the north of Natal and the closest point to Europe from Latin America, was first visited by European navigators in 1501, in the 1501–1502 Portuguese expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci, who named the spot after the saint of the day...
and Recife
Recife
Recife is the fifth-largest metropolitan area in Brazil with 4,136,506 inhabitants, the largest metropolitan area of the North/Northeast Regions, the 5th-largest metropolitan influence area in Brazil, and the capital and largest city of the state of Pernambuco. The population of the city proper...
Brazil], across the South Atlantic through Ascension Island to the British and Belgian colonies in West Africa, across the bottom of the Sahara Desert to Khartoum
Khartoum
Khartoum is the capital and largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran"...
Sudan, and up the Nile to Egypt and Allied forces in the Middle East and beyond. This was the only way to get large-to-medium aircraft and urgent military supplies to Allied forces in Egypt (specifically 9th Air Force supporting United States Army Forces in the Middle East (USAFIME)
U.S. Army Forces in the Middle East
United States Army Forces in the Middle East ' was a unified United States Army command during World War II established in August, 1942 by order of General George Marshall to oversee the Egypt-Libya Campaign....
) in the Allied 1943 Egypt-Libya Campaign
Egypt-Libya Campaign
The Egypt–Libya Campaign is the name used by the United States military for the US contribution to the Allied Western Desert Campaign, during World War II. From 1942, U.S. forces assisted the British Commonwealth in fighting Axis forces in Egypt and Libya. The U.S...
leading up to the defeat of Rommel and securing North Africa following Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
and the Tunisia Campaign
Tunisia Campaign
The Tunisia Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American and French corps...
in late 1943.
Laconia incident
B-24 Liberator
The Consolidated B-24 Liberator was an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and a small number of early models were sold under the name LB-30, for Land Bomber...
from the 343rd Bombardment Squadron was sent to investigate and found four U-boats displaying the Red Cross flag engaged in rescue operations from the sinking of Laconia. The U-Boat commander, Lt Cmdr Werner Hartenstein
Werner Hartenstein
Gustav Julius Werner Hartenstein was a Korvettenkapitän with the Kriegsmarine during World War II and commander of . He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross . The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross was awarded to recognise extreme battlefield bravery or successful military...
, had secured permission to conduct rescue operations after discovering that the ship he had just torpedoed, RMS Laconia, carried 1,800 Italian prisoners, a few hundred British and Polish soldiers, plus some number of civilians including women and children, British dependents from Egypt. U-156 was crammed above and below decks with nearly two hundred survivors, including five women, and had another 200 in tow aboard four lifeboats. The patrolling bomber loaded with depth charges and bombs reported that the submarine had a white flag with a red cross and they had unsuccessfully challenged the submarine via radio to display its national flag. The submarine blinked via signal light that the bomber crew understood to say "German Sir". The bomber crew asked Ascension Island what to do next.
The German navy had notified the British authorities of the rescue operations, but the British thought it was a trick and did not communicate it to the U.S. forces at the secret Wideawake Airfield on Ascension. Captain Richardson, not knowing that this was a Red Cross sanctioned German rescue operation, made a tactical assessment of the potential threat that the U-boats posed to the en-route, unarmed British rescue ships and that the U-boats could discover and shell the airfield and its vulnerable fuel tanks, thus cutting off this critical allied air route; Captain Richardson ordered the B-24 crew to "bomb the sub". After the (unsuccessful) attack ordered by Richardson, the U-boats under German navy command orders stopped all rescue operations and departed the area. A majority of survivors were later rescued by British merchant ships and two unarmed Vichy French
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
warships, the cruiser Gloire and the sloop Annamite, out of Dakar
Dakar
Dakar is the capital city and largest city of Senegal. It is located on the Cap-Vert Peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city on the African mainland...
, Africa.
This action became known as the Laconia incident
Laconia incident
The Laconia incident was an abortive naval rescue attempt in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II. On 12 September 1942, , carrying some 80 civilians, 268 British Army soldiers, about 1,800 Italian prisoners of war, and 160 Polish soldiers , was struck and sunk by a torpedo from Kriegsmarine...
and led Admiral Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz was a German naval commander during World War II. He started his career in the German Navy during World War I. In 1918, while he was in command of , the submarine was sunk by British forces and Dönitz was taken prisoner...
, chief of German Submarine Operations, to issue the "Laconia Order" to his U-boat commanders that stated in part "No attempt of any kind must be made at rescuing members of ships sunk...." At the end of the war, the Laconia Order was unsuccessfully used against Admiral Dönitz in his war crime trial, because Fleet Admiral Nimitz testified that in the war with Japan the U.S. Navy had followed the same general policy as was set forth in the German admiral's directive. The Laconia Incident showed how a small tactical decision can have strategic impact across history.
Back to the United States and on to Europe
While on Ascension Island, then Major Richardson boasted, over drinks, to a visiting Air Staff team that he could successfully ferry a group of P-38 LightningP-38 Lightning
The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament...
s via the South Atlantic air route. In March 1943, Richardson was ordered back to the United States as the project officer and flight leader to make good his boast that he could to ferry P-38 Lightning
P-38 Lightning
The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament...
s to North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
via the South Atlantic. In April 1943, he successfully delivered 52 of the original 53 aircraft to Morocco to reinforce U.S. air forces supporting Operation TORCH, a real feat of airmanship. From there he was assigned back to the United States as chief of the Aircraft Division, and later as chief of the Fighter Division, Army Air Force Board, Orlando, Florida
Orlando, Florida
Orlando is a city in the central region of the U.S. state of Florida. It is the county seat of Orange County, and the center of the Greater Orlando metropolitan area. According to the 2010 US Census, the city had a population of 238,300, making Orlando the 79th largest city in the United States...
where he had the opportunity to test fly a number of the experimental aircraft to include the XP-59A, Airacomet
P-59 Airacomet
The Bell P-59 Airacomet was the first American jet fighter aircraft, designed and built during World War II. The United States Army Air Forces was not impressed by its performance and cancelled the contract when fewer than half of the aircraft ordered had been produced. Although no P-59s went...
, the first U.S. jet fighter, then undergoing testing at Muroc Army Air Field (today, Edwards Air Force Base
Edwards Air Force Base
Edwards Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located on the border of Kern County, Los Angeles County, and San Bernardino County, California, in the Antelope Valley. It is southwest of the central business district of North Edwards, California and due east of Rosamond.It is named in...
) in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
.
P-59 Airacomet
The Bell P-59 Airacomet was the first American jet fighter aircraft, designed and built during World War II. The United States Army Air Forces was not impressed by its performance and cancelled the contract when fewer than half of the aircraft ordered had been produced. Although no P-59s went...
, the first U.S. jet fighter, and on suggested tactics to use against the new German jet aircraft. He then served as an action officer in General Carl Spaatz
Carl Spaatz
Carl Andrew "Tooey" Spaatz GBE was an American World War II general and the first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. He was of German descent.-Early life:...
's headquarters in London and Paris through December 1944 where he coordinated what new equipment and weapons coming from the CONUS based Army Force Board with what the European combat units said they needed and experienced. In January 1945, he transferred to the Operations Division of Headquarters, IX Tactical Air Command
IX Tactical Air Command
The IX Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the Ninth Air Force, based at Camp Shanks, New York...
, Ninth Air Force
Ninth Air Force
The Ninth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force's Air Combat Command . It is headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina....
. In April 1945, he assumed command of the 365th Fighter Group
365th Fighter Group
The 365th Fighter Group is an inactive United States Army Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the Army Service Forces stationed at Camp Myles Standish, Massachusetts. It was inactivated on 22 September 1945....
, "The Hell Hawks," at Fritzlar
Fritzlar
Fritzlar is a small German town in the Schwalm-Eder district in northern Hesse, north of Frankfurt, with a storied history. It can reasonably be argued that the town is the site where the Christianization of northern Germany began and the birthplace of the German empire as a political entity.The...
, Germany. He led the unit in their support of the General Patton's final push into Germany then transitioned the P-47 Thunderbolt
P-47 Thunderbolt
Republic Aviation's P-47 Thunderbolt, also known as the "Jug", was the largest, heaviest, and most expensive fighter aircraft in history to be powered by a single reciprocating engine. It was heavily armed with eight .50-caliber machine guns, four per wing. When fully loaded, the P-47 weighed up to...
fighter group from wartime to peacetime operations. Upon the redeployment of the 365th Fighter Group back to the United States in September 1945, he remained in the Occupation Forces as chief of the Aircraft Allocation Division, Headquarters, U.S. Air Forces in Europe. In February 1946, he became assistant chief of staff for operations, European Air Transport Service where it was his task to round up, account for, and dispose of all the U.S. aircraft in the European Theater as the U.S. Army Air Corp rapidly demobilized and sent units back to the United States.
Evolving into a strategic long-range planner
In June 1946, then Lt Col Richardson was assigned to the War Plans Division of the Air Staff in Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
. In July 1947, he was transferred to the Joint War Plans Committee, which in December 1947, upon implementation of the 1947 Unification Act
National Security Act of 1947
The National Security Act of 1947 was signed by United States President Harry S. Truman on July 26, 1947, and realigned and reorganized the U.S. Armed Forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community apparatus in the aftermath of World War II...
, became Joint Strategic Plans Group, Joint Chiefs of Staff
Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President on military matters...
. Upon creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in 1949, newly promoted Colonel Richardson became the first Air Force planner on the NATO Standing Group.
NATO years
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
land forces that outnumbered US and NATO conventional forces by a factor of 10 to 1. He worked the negotiation of an agreement for Germany's rearmament and for the establishment of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE) in Paris France. In February 1951, Col Richardson accompanied General Lauris Norstad
Lauris Norstad
Lauris Norstad was an American General in the United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force.-Early life and military career:...
to Europe as a member of his planning staff. In July 1951, he was designated as the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff representative and military observer to the European Defense Community Treaty Conference in Paris. In July 1953, he was assigned to the Plans Staff of the Air Deputy, SHAPE, when responsibility for U.S. military advice to the European Defense Community was transferred from the U.S. Ambassador to the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. From July 1953 to July 1955, Richardson was special assistant to Air Vice Marshal Huddleston
Huddleston
Huddleston is a surname, and may refer to:* Amelia Edith Huddleston Barr* Adam Thomas Huddleston* David Huddleston* George Huddleston* George Huddleston, Jr.* John Huddleston* John Walter Huddleston* Mark Huddleston* Robert Alexander Huddleston...
, Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
, Deputy Chief of Staff/Operations SHAPE, and later, the deputy director/policy, Headquarters SHAPE, serving primarily as the U.S. Air Force member of the Inter-Allied Planning Committee (New Approach Group) that developed the concept for an atomic defense of Europe. In that capacity he wrote the original NATO atomic or nuclear war plans and became one of the U.S. military's leading authorities on tactical nuclear warfare
Tactical nuclear weapon
A tactical nuclear weapon refers to a nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations. This is as opposed to strategic nuclear weapons which are designed to menace large populations, to damage the enemy's ability to wage war, or for general deterrence...
, strategy, and concepts.
National War College
The National War College of the United States is a school in the National Defense University. It is housed in Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C., the third-oldest Army post still active. It was officially established on July 1, 1946, as an upgraded replacement for the...
, graduating in June 1956. He assumed command of the 83rd Fighter Wing (redesignated 4th Fighter Wing
4th Fighter Wing
The 4th Fighter Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Combat Command Ninth Air Force. It is stationed at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina, where it is also the host unit....
) flying F-86H Sabre and re-opened Seymour Johnson Air Force Base
Seymour Johnson Air Force Base
Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located to the southeast of Goldsboro, North Carolina. The base is named for Navy test pilot Seymour Johnson, a native of Goldsboro...
, North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
.
Atomic weapons and the evolution of theater nuclear warfare
From his experience thinking of and drafting NATO’s nuclear war plans under President Eisenhower’s emphasis on atomic defense to counter Soviet conventional superiority led him in 1955 to publish a series of articles on nuclear and atomic warfareNuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare, or atomic warfare, is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is detonated on an opponent. Compared to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can be vastly more destructive in range and extent of damage...
in the Air University Review. As a result, Col Richardson had become an acknowledged military expert in nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare, or atomic warfare, is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is detonated on an opponent. Compared to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can be vastly more destructive in range and extent of damage...
and a regular lecturer on the subject at the National Defense College
National Defense University
The National Defense University is an institution of higher education funded by the United States Department of Defense, intended to facilitate high-level training, education, and the development of national security strategy. It is chartered by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, with Navy Vice Admiral...
and Air War College
Air War College
The Air War College is a part of the United States Air Force's Air University, headquartered at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama. Air University's higher headquarters is Air Education and Training Command headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas. The Air War...
. In January 1958, he was transferred to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, to become assistant for Long Range Objectives to the deputy chief of staff/plans and programs. He was promoted to brigadier general
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
in May 1960.
With the installation of the new Kennedy Administration, Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara directed the dismantlement of the Air Force and Navy long range plans staffs and ordered the services’ long range planning experts out of Washington and into the field. This along with imposing a more restrictive editorial policy on the military services’ strategy journals removed the services’ key thinkers from the Washington debates arising from the administration’s new strategic direction with regard to military procurement and military strategy development. As a result in June 1961, Gen Richardson was transferred to the Military Assistance Division, Headquarters U.S. European Command, Paris, France, and upon arrival was detailed by General Norstad as director of operations for Live Oak, the Tripartite Berlin Plans and Operations Group air force team that coordinated and executed the NATO air responses to the Soviet attempts close down the Berlin air corridors during the Berlin Crisis
Berlin Crisis of 1961
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major politico-military European incident of the Cold War about the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of post–World War II Germany. The U.S.S.R...
. Upon termination of the Berlin Crisis, Gen Richardson was assigned as deputy standing group representative, NATO, effective 1 January 1962 through 1 January 1964.
Air Force System Command and strategic acquisition development
Given Secretary of Defense McNamara’s known hostility toward any military service long-range planning and to Gen Richardson’s strategic thinking, the Air Force assigned Gen Richardson to Headquarters Air Force Systems CommandAir Force Systems Command
Air Force Systems Command is a former United States Air Force command. Its headquarters was located at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland...
(AFSC), Andrews Air Force Base
Andrews Air Force Base
Joint Base Andrews is a United States military facility located in Prince George's County, Maryland. The facility is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force 11th Wing, Air Force District of Washington ....
, Maryland
Maryland
Maryland is a U.S. state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east...
. He served as assistant to the commander, then assistant deputy chief of staff for plans, and in August 1965, he was assigned as the deputy chief of staff for science and technology. On 31 July 1966, he reported to Field Command, Defense Atomic Support Agency.
His final military assignment was to Headquarters Field Command, Defense Atomic Support Agency, Sandia Base
Sandia Base
Sandia Base was, from 1946 to 1971, the principal nuclear weapons installation of the United States Department of Defense. It was located on the southeastern edge of Albuquerque, New Mexico...
, New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, as deputy commander for weapons and training where he was responsible for managing atomic weapon development and training activities and the nuclear weapons stockpile.
Defense policy consultant and learning to influence public policy
Gen Richardson retired from active duty on 1 August 1967 and began his second career as a writer, lecturer, and consultant on defense issues, nuclear strategy, and aerospace technology management. He joined his long-time friend and former AFSC commander, General Bernard Adolph SchrieverBernard Adolph Schriever
General Bernard Adolph Schriever , also known as Bennie Schriever, was a United States Air Force general. He was born in Bremen, Germany, and after immigrating to the United States, played a major role in the U.S. Air Force programs for space and ballistic missile research.-Early years:Bernard...
, as a senior associate with Schriever & McKee Associate Consultants to bring his aerospace and systems management expertise to bear on the issues facing urban America.
In the 1970s, Gen Richardson greatly expanded his work as an author, lecturer, and policy advocate in the areas of national security, defense theory, defense policy formulation, nuclear strategy, defense technology acquisition, and long range planning. During this decade, he actively advocated conservative viewpoints regarding defense and national security public policy issues serving as
- Consultant to American Enterprise InstituteAmerican Enterprise InstituteThe American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research is a conservative think tank founded in 1943. Its stated mission is "to defend the principles and improve the institutions of American freedom and democratic capitalism—limited government, private enterprise, individual liberty and...
- Assistant editor for Journal of International Security
- Member of the American Security Council
- Executive Director, American Foreign Policy Institute
- Secretary-Treasurer for Security and Intelligence Fund
- Co-Chairman of the Coalition for Peace Through Defense
As recognized authority on tactical nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare, or atomic warfare, is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is detonated on an opponent. Compared to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can be vastly more destructive in range and extent of damage...
and defense technology acquisition, he also served as consultant to Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security , located in Los Alamos, New Mexico...
(1971–1979), US and European aerospace industries
Aerospace manufacturer
An aerospace manufacturer is a company or individual involved in the various aspects of designing, building, testing, selling, and maintaining aircraft, aircraft parts, missiles, rockets, and/or spacecraft....
, and Stanford Research Institution (1973-1974).
High frontier and the space-based missile defense
Daniel O. Graham
Daniel O. Graham was a U.S. Army officer. Graham was born in Portland, Oregon and grew up in Medford. He attended college at the United States Military Academy at West Point, the Army's Command and General Staff College, and graduated in 1946. He also attended the U.S...
on a Heritage Foundation
Heritage Foundation
The Heritage Foundation is a conservative American think tank based in Washington, D.C. Heritage's stated mission is to "formulate and promote conservative public policies based on the principles of free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a strong...
project called High Frontier
High Frontier
High Frontier may refer to:*High Frontier, an American group established in the 1980s by former Lieutenant General Daniel O. Graham to advocate for the Strategic Defense Initiative...
to formulate a long-term national strategy and plan to build a U.S. space-based missile defense. This plan, “High Frontier: A New National Strategy,” was the foundation for President Ronald Reagan
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the United States , the 33rd Governor of California and, prior to that, a radio, film and television actor....
’s Strategic Defense Initiative
Strategic Defense Initiative
The Strategic Defense Initiative was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic...
. Gen Richardson went on to serve as Deputy Directory for the High Frontier non-profit organization from 1981 to 2003 that not only advocated the maximum use of U.S. space technology for missile defense but also for the industrial and commercial use of space. Over the two decades he was with High Frontier, Gen Richardson successfully advocated for President Ronald Reagan
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the United States , the 33rd Governor of California and, prior to that, a radio, film and television actor....
’s Strategic Defense Initiative
Strategic Defense Initiative
The Strategic Defense Initiative was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic...
, established the Space Transportation Association, advocated the single-stage-to-orbit (or SSTO) vehicle as a follow-on to the Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a manned orbital rocket and spacecraft system operated by NASA on 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. The system combined rocket launch, orbital spacecraft, and re-entry spaceplane with modular add-ons...
, and more recently, helped develop a long-term strategy to colonize the Moon.
Notable publications
Richardson has authored numerous articles on atomic or nuclear warfare, strategy, and concepts. These include:"Atomic Weapons and War Damage," ORBIS, spring 1960;
"Do We Need Unlimited Forces for Limited War," Air Force Magazine, March 1959;
"Forces in Being - The Weapons," Air Force Magazine, August 1958;
"In The Looking Glass," Air University Review, winter 1957-1958;
"Nuclear Stalemate Fallacy," Air Force Magazine, August 1956;
"Atomic Weapons and Theater Warfare" (four articles) Air University Review, winter and spring 1955;
"The U.S. Air Force and NATO," Air University Review, winter 1952-1953;
and "Defense on the Technological Front," Air Force Magazine, June 1966.
Awards and decorations
Richardson's decorations include the
Legion of MeritLegion of MeritThe Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements...
Air MedalAir MedalThe Air Medal is a military decoration of the United States. The award was created in 1942, and is awarded for meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight.-Criteria:...
Army Commendation Medal
French Croix de GuerreCroix de guerreThe Croix de guerre is a military decoration of France. It was first created in 1915 and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was awarded during World War I, again in World War II, and in other conflicts...
with silver star.
Flying record
Gen Richardson was a Command pilot with over 3500 flying hours in the following U.S. military aircraft
- World War II pursuit aircraft - P-38 LightningP-38 LightningThe Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament...
, P-39 Airacobra, P-40 Warhawk, P-47 ThunderboltP-47 ThunderboltRepublic Aviation's P-47 Thunderbolt, also known as the "Jug", was the largest, heaviest, and most expensive fighter aircraft in history to be powered by a single reciprocating engine. It was heavily armed with eight .50-caliber machine guns, four per wing. When fully loaded, the P-47 weighed up to...
, P-51C/D MustangP-51 MustangThe North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range, single-seat fighter and fighter-bomber used during World War II, the Korean War and in several other conflicts...
, P-61 Black WidowP-61 Black WidowThe Northrop P-61 Black Widow was the first operational U.S. military aircraft designed specifically for night interception of aircraft, and was the first aircraft specifically designed to use radar. It was an all-metal, twin-engine, twin-boom design developed during World War II... - World War II bomber/attack aircraft - A-20 Havoc, AT-23A Marauder, RA-24B Banshee, B-10 MartinMartin B-10The Martin B-10 was the first all-metal monoplane bomber to go into regular use by the United States Army Air Corps, entering service in June 1934...
, B-12 MartinMartin B-10The Martin B-10 was the first all-metal monoplane bomber to go into regular use by the United States Army Air Corps, entering service in June 1934...
, B-17F Flying Fortress, B-18 BoloB-18 BoloThe Douglas B-18 Bolo was a United States Army Air Corps and Royal Canadian Air Force bomber of the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was built by Douglas Aircraft Company and based on its DC-2 and was developed to replace the Martin B-10....
, B-24C LiberatorB-24 LiberatorThe Consolidated B-24 Liberator was an American heavy bomber, designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California. It was known within the company as the Model 32, and a small number of early models were sold under the name LB-30, for Land Bomber...
, B-25 MitchellB-25 MitchellThe North American B-25 Mitchell was an American twin-engined medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation. It was used by many Allied air forces, in every theater of World War II, as well as many other air forces after the war ended, and saw service across four decades.The B-25 was named...
, B-26B Marauder - Transport aircraft - C-40 Electra Junior, C-47 Dakota, C-64 Norseman, C-76 CaravanC-76 CaravanThe Curtiss-Wright C-76 Caravan was an all-wood military transport aircraft. The C-76 was intended as a substitute standard aircraft in the event of expected wartime shortages of light alloys. However, both prototype and production aircraft failed several critical flight and static tests, and...
, C-53 Skytrooper, C-54 Skytrain, C-117 Skytrain, C-123B ProviderC-123 ProviderThe C-123 Provider was an American military transport aircraft designed by Chase Aircraft and subsequently built by Fairchild Aircraft for the United States Air Force... - Training and administrative aircraft - AT-6 Texan, AT-7 Navigator, AT-8 Bobcat, A-17A NOMADNorthrop A-17The Northrop A-17, a development of the Northrop Gamma 2F was a two seat, single engine, monoplane, attack bomber built in 1935 by the Northrop Corporation for the US Army Air Corps.-Development and design:...
, BC-1, BT-13 ValiantBT-13 ValiantThe Vultee BT-13 Valiant was an American World War II-era basic trainer aircraft built by Vultee Aircraft for the United States Army Air Corps, and later US Army Air Forces...
, BT-14 Yale, BT-9 Yale, PT-17 Kaydet, L-3A/B, L-4, L-5 Sentinel, OA-4C Dolphin, T-33 Shooting Star - Experimental aircraft – PB-2 Consolidated (P-30)Consolidated P-30|-See also:-References:NotesBibliography* Angelucci, Enzo. and Peter M. Bowers, The American Fighter. New York: Orion Books, 1987. ISBN 0-517-56588-9....
, XB-41 Liberator, XP-59A Airacomet - Post-World War II jet fighters - F-80 Shooting Star, F-86H Sabre, F-102A Delta Dagger