Reservation poverty
Encyclopedia
This article examines the unique conditions and challenges of poverty on American Indian Reservation
s in the United States of Asserica. It presents data on the various facets of reservation poverty, including income, unemployment
, housing, and education, before examining attempts to change the conditions of life, and offering directions for future leaders.
American Indian Reservations are areas of land within the United States
that are managed by a tribal government in cooperation with the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs
, which is a part of the Department of the Interior. There are 334 reservations in the United States today. Currently, almost a third of single-race American Indians live on reservations, totaling approximately 700,000 individuals. Reservations vary drastically in terms of size, population, proximity to urban centers, and cultural beliefs and practices. Despite their variation, reservations face similar historical backgrounds and contemporary challenges. At the forefront of those challenges is the issue of reservation poverty. In 2010, the poverty rate on reservations is 28.4 percent, compared with 22 percent among all American Indians (reservation and not), and 15.3 percent of Americans. Unfortunately, data about reservation populations specifically is not regularly tabulated, so recent figures are not always available. Beyond poverty rates and income levels, Reservations face dire circumstances in terms of education levels, access to healthcare, job availability, housing characteristics, and economic infrastructure.
There is a lack of reservation population data that is up to date and valid. Annual demographic surveys generally do not have a large enough reservation-based sample to present data Data on American Indians rarely differentiates between reservation residents and non-reservation residents, even though there are huge differences in lifestyles and often much tension between the groups. Furthermore, the rural nature of many reservations, the lack of available contact information and telephone numbers, protective rules by tribal councils, and an understandable distrust of outsiders present data collection challenges. In general, the figures in this article are those most recently available.
is as high as 85 percent. The per capita income
of American Indians on Reservations is half that of all Americans.
Some reservations in Washington, California
, Wisconsin
, Georgia
, Michigan
, North Dakota
, South Dakota
, Arizona
, and New Mexico
fare worst, with more than 60 percent of residents living in poverty. The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota
and the Navajo
Reservation in New Mexico
, often considered the most poverty-stricken in the nation, have poverty rates hovering around 75 percent
Without commercial establishments, non-cash transactions are common on some reservations. Although viable options for transactions within the reservation community, and a logical reaction to living without banks or stores, non-cash economies serve to further isolate reservation residents from the national or global economy.
on reservations as of the last census was 14 percent, but there is much variation. Reservations nearer urban centers, especially on the East Coast, tend to have employment rates similar to or higher than the national average. On many large, rural reservations on the other hand, a majority of the workforce is unemployed. On reservations in California
, Oregon
, Nevada
, Arizona
, Utah
, Florida
, Washington, New Mexico
, Nebraska
, Montana
, and Alaska
, reservation unemployment rates are above 25 percent. On some California reservations, the number exceeds 75 percent. Unemployment on Pine Ridge in South Dakota is as high as 85 percent.
There are very few jobs available on the reservation. Schools are the biggest employer, followed by various public service positions with the Postal Service, commodity and provisions office, and tribal police forces. Because these positions require a high school education, much of the reservation population is disqualified.
A vast majority of reservation residents live in what were built to be single-family homes. Most structures are single-family units built by the government in the last three decades. The average household size is 3.08, but there is much variation. Many homes house very large extended families. In Oregon
, some reservations average more than ten people in each home. In Wisconsin
and California
, large households are also common. It is also important to note that many times households take in relatives and friends for extended periods, but do not report this on official census
records because of the fluidity of the arrangements. There is a need for further research on housing situations on reservations, as the decennial census does not provide reliable data.
Homeownership is actually relatively high, especially considering the high poverty rates. 62 percent of reservation residents own homes. However, the land these homes are on is owned by the tribes, the value of homes is less than half the national average, and the quality of housing is often substandard. Nearly half of housing on reservations is considered inadequate shelter.
Nearly 20 percent of reservation homes lack basic kitchen facilities, including piped water, a range or cookstove, and a refrigerator. On the Navajo
Reservation, nearly half households lack these necessities. This is compared to 3 percent of American Indians nationwide and only 1 percent of all households. More than half of households on reservations do not have phone service, compared with five percent nationally and nine percent among nonmetropolitan areas. One fifth of reservation households lack running water, compared with 1 percent of households nationwide. Nearly one half of Navajo and Hopi Reservation residents lack plumbing.
Reservation in Arizona
, barely a third of adults possess this credential. Reservation residents high school graduation rate is half that of all American Indians in the United States.
More individuals have less than a ninth grade education than have a college diploma. More than 10 percent lack any high school education. It is not uncommon on reservations in California
and New Mexico
to have more than half the population with less than a ninth grade education. In North Dakota
, Nevada
, California
, New Mexico
, South Dakota
, Utah
, Colorado
, and Wyoming
, many reservations have over three quarters of their population without high school degrees. This is compared to 12 percent nationwide.
At over 14 percent, the percentage of homes without any electricity
on reservations is ten times the national rate. On the Navajo Reservation, nearly 40 percent of homes are without electricity. Furthermore, reservations are often the last to receive updated electrical infrastructure, and are the last places to which service is restored following an outage. In 2008, areas of the Pine Ridge Reservation were without power for more than two weeks following a storm-related outage. In nearby towns off the reservation, power was restored in under 28 hours.
Many key roads serving reservations communities were never designed or built for vehicular traffic. Only 15% of the nearly 28,000 miles of reservation roads are in acceptable conditions and pass current safety regulations. Almost a quarter of reservation households do not have access to a vehicle. However, barely one percent of reservation residents rely on any kind of public transportation. Although the federal government has made funds available to improve transportation on reservations, they have not been taken advantage of.
Modern telecommunications are extremely lacking. Fewer than 10 percent of reservation residents have internet access. Many larger reservations are without cell phone reception.
or productive potential. The government reserved naturally rich areas for exploitation by non-Native individuals, corporations, and governments. Some reservations are rich in natural resources, or at least have the potential for development. Such development, though, requires a substantial amount be invested at the onset to build necessary infrastructure. Tribes are at a disadvantage, not having the resources or specialists needed. As such, they contract development out to firms off the reservation, who keep a great majority of the profits. Although the tribe usually receives a nominal amount of profits, they lose the rights to their land and the potential for truly sovereign development. The rule of Native lands by non-natives off the reservation is particularly prevalent on many large, rural reservations in the Midwest and Rocky Mountain regions. Although the land provides opportunity for ranching, few reservation residents possess the capital required to raise cattle. Instead, they lease the land to non-native ranchers for minimal amounts. As the reservation residents do not have alternative ways of making money on the reservation, ranchers can drive the lease rates down to mere dollars a year.
In what is perhaps the most troublesome use of Native lands, the government has used reservations for nuclear testing and disposal. Uranium mining
and milling, uranium conversion and enrichment, and nuclear weapons testing have all occurred on reservation lands in the past century. After creating the Nevada Test Site
on Western Shoshone
lands in Nevada, the government tested weapons there between 1951 and 1991. The Western Shoshone people call themselves the “most bombed nation on the planet.” Similar activities happened on Pauite Shoshone lands as well. The use of Reservation Lands as a dumpsite is not limited to nuclear waste. Reservations in relatively close proximity to urban areas have become the site of garbage landfills, adding to the landscape of poverty in these areas.
In addition to Native-specific provisions, reservation residents are usually eligible for federal welfare programs and food stamps.The government allows tribes some authority in creating their own versions of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF) with federal monies, but such programs must abide by federal regulations, such as the 60-month limitation. The amount of money allotted depends on the amount individual states spent in prior years. This distribution is flawed, as some states actively withhold money from reservations, contributing to increasing poverty.
Like welfare in other areas, public assistance does not effectively reduce poverty on the reservation. Although it may keep many families from being completely unable to survive, it does not build economies, reinstitute cultural institutions, or create a source of pride for reservation residents. Many reservations are fighting to bring these positive changes through a variety of means.
programs holds great potential, Specifically, Elizabeth Zahrt Geib stressed the potential for tribes to define work for purposes of welfare distribution to include traditional tasks and arts more in line with lifestyles before the reservation system was created. The Tanana Chiefs Conference
of Alaska and the Lac du Flambeau Bank of Lake Superior Chippewa
of Wisconsin have already included hunting and fishing as work activities for purposes of welfare distribution.
Some Native entrepreneurs have brought economic development to their reservations. Small businesses thrive on reservations throughout the country. For example, the Tanka Bar company of Kyle, South Dakota
on Pine Ridge produces energy bars using buffalo meat and cranberries that are sold in gourmet grocery stores throughout the country. An artists’ cooperative on the Fort Apache
Reservation sells Native artwork online and is staffed by young reservation residents, providing the artists with business and the employees with important work experience. Unfortunately, for every successful business, there are many that are not able to sustain themselves, and many more ideas without the resources needed to implement them.
Others, though, have stated that conventional capitalist business plans run counter to many Native traditions, which stress community and interdependence rather than individualism and competition.
Others have suggested that it is not the lack of economic activity that is most problematic, it is the absence of private property. These theorists have called for a formal distribution of land rights among tribal members to stimulate reservation economies.
As tribes, families, and communities work to improve conditions of the reservations, leaders can hope to learn what most effectively reduces poverty, improves quality of life, and preserves Native cultures. The historically rooted and deeply persistent poverty is troubling. The question of whether the Reservation system can persist, or needs to be completely overhauled has no easy answer. In the face of extreme adversity, historical abuse and neglect, and severe hardship, reservation residents have preserved their culture as much as possible and will continue to fight for an improved quality of life.
Indian reservation
An American Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native American tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs...
s in the United States of Asserica. It presents data on the various facets of reservation poverty, including income, unemployment
Unemployment
Unemployment , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks...
, housing, and education, before examining attempts to change the conditions of life, and offering directions for future leaders.
American Indian Reservations are areas of land within the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
that are managed by a tribal government in cooperation with the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
, which is a part of the Department of the Interior. There are 334 reservations in the United States today. Currently, almost a third of single-race American Indians live on reservations, totaling approximately 700,000 individuals. Reservations vary drastically in terms of size, population, proximity to urban centers, and cultural beliefs and practices. Despite their variation, reservations face similar historical backgrounds and contemporary challenges. At the forefront of those challenges is the issue of reservation poverty. In 2010, the poverty rate on reservations is 28.4 percent, compared with 22 percent among all American Indians (reservation and not), and 15.3 percent of Americans. Unfortunately, data about reservation populations specifically is not regularly tabulated, so recent figures are not always available. Beyond poverty rates and income levels, Reservations face dire circumstances in terms of education levels, access to healthcare, job availability, housing characteristics, and economic infrastructure.
There is a lack of reservation population data that is up to date and valid. Annual demographic surveys generally do not have a large enough reservation-based sample to present data Data on American Indians rarely differentiates between reservation residents and non-reservation residents, even though there are huge differences in lifestyles and often much tension between the groups. Furthermore, the rural nature of many reservations, the lack of available contact information and telephone numbers, protective rules by tribal councils, and an understandable distrust of outsiders present data collection challenges. In general, the figures in this article are those most recently available.
Income and wealth
The median income on reservations in $29,097, compared to $41,994 nationally. The official poverty rate is 28.4 percent, compared with 15.3 nationally. Among children, it is 35.5 percent, compared with 16.1 nationally. Unemployment on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South DakotaSouth Dakota
South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux American Indian tribes. Once a part of Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889. The state has an area of and an estimated population of just over...
is as high as 85 percent. The per capita income
Per capita income
Per capita income or income per person is a measure of mean income within an economic aggregate, such as a country or city. It is calculated by taking a measure of all sources of income in the aggregate and dividing it by the total population...
of American Indians on Reservations is half that of all Americans.
Some reservations in Washington, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
, Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
, Michigan
Michigan
Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
, North Dakota
North Dakota
North Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States of America, along the Canadian border. The state is bordered by Canada to the north, Minnesota to the east, South Dakota to the south and Montana to the west. North Dakota is the 19th-largest state by area in the U.S....
, South Dakota
South Dakota
South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux American Indian tribes. Once a part of Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889. The state has an area of and an estimated population of just over...
, Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
, and New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
fare worst, with more than 60 percent of residents living in poverty. The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota
South Dakota
South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux American Indian tribes. Once a part of Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889. The state has an area of and an estimated population of just over...
and the Navajo
Navajo
Navajo or Navaho may refer to:* Navajo people* Navajo Nation, the governmental entity of the Navajo people* Navajo language, spoken by the Navajo people-Places in the United States:* Navajo, San Diego, California* Navajo, New Mexico...
Reservation in New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, often considered the most poverty-stricken in the nation, have poverty rates hovering around 75 percent
Without commercial establishments, non-cash transactions are common on some reservations. Although viable options for transactions within the reservation community, and a logical reaction to living without banks or stores, non-cash economies serve to further isolate reservation residents from the national or global economy.
Employment
UnemploymentUnemployment
Unemployment , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks...
on reservations as of the last census was 14 percent, but there is much variation. Reservations nearer urban centers, especially on the East Coast, tend to have employment rates similar to or higher than the national average. On many large, rural reservations on the other hand, a majority of the workforce is unemployed. On reservations in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Oregon
Oregon
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern...
, Nevada
Nevada
Nevada is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. With an area of and a population of about 2.7 million, it is the 7th-largest and 35th-most populous state. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area, which contains its...
, Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
, Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
, Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
, Washington, New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, Nebraska
Nebraska
Nebraska is a state on the Great Plains of the Midwestern United States. The state's capital is Lincoln and its largest city is Omaha, on the Missouri River....
, Montana
Montana
Montana is a state in the Western United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges. Smaller, "island ranges" are found in the central third of the state, for a total of 77 named ranges of the Rocky Mountains. This geographical fact is reflected in the state's name,...
, and Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
, reservation unemployment rates are above 25 percent. On some California reservations, the number exceeds 75 percent. Unemployment on Pine Ridge in South Dakota is as high as 85 percent.
There are very few jobs available on the reservation. Schools are the biggest employer, followed by various public service positions with the Postal Service, commodity and provisions office, and tribal police forces. Because these positions require a high school education, much of the reservation population is disqualified.
Housing
About 90,000 families on reservations, nearly 10 percent, are homeless, but many rely on friends or relatives for temporary housing.A vast majority of reservation residents live in what were built to be single-family homes. Most structures are single-family units built by the government in the last three decades. The average household size is 3.08, but there is much variation. Many homes house very large extended families. In Oregon
Oregon
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern...
, some reservations average more than ten people in each home. In Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
and California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, large households are also common. It is also important to note that many times households take in relatives and friends for extended periods, but do not report this on official census
Census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
records because of the fluidity of the arrangements. There is a need for further research on housing situations on reservations, as the decennial census does not provide reliable data.
Homeownership is actually relatively high, especially considering the high poverty rates. 62 percent of reservation residents own homes. However, the land these homes are on is owned by the tribes, the value of homes is less than half the national average, and the quality of housing is often substandard. Nearly half of housing on reservations is considered inadequate shelter.
Nearly 20 percent of reservation homes lack basic kitchen facilities, including piped water, a range or cookstove, and a refrigerator. On the Navajo
Navajo
Navajo or Navaho may refer to:* Navajo people* Navajo Nation, the governmental entity of the Navajo people* Navajo language, spoken by the Navajo people-Places in the United States:* Navajo, San Diego, California* Navajo, New Mexico...
Reservation, nearly half households lack these necessities. This is compared to 3 percent of American Indians nationwide and only 1 percent of all households. More than half of households on reservations do not have phone service, compared with five percent nationally and nine percent among nonmetropolitan areas. One fifth of reservation households lack running water, compared with 1 percent of households nationwide. Nearly one half of Navajo and Hopi Reservation residents lack plumbing.
Education
Formal educational attainment is widely considered both a mark of social class and a prerequisite to establishing comfortable standards of living. Just over half of the adults on reservations have a high school diploma. On the Gila RiverGila River
The Gila River is a tributary of the Colorado River, 650 miles long, in the southwestern states of New Mexico and Arizona.-Description:...
Reservation in Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
, barely a third of adults possess this credential. Reservation residents high school graduation rate is half that of all American Indians in the United States.
More individuals have less than a ninth grade education than have a college diploma. More than 10 percent lack any high school education. It is not uncommon on reservations in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
and New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
to have more than half the population with less than a ninth grade education. In North Dakota
North Dakota
North Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States of America, along the Canadian border. The state is bordered by Canada to the north, Minnesota to the east, South Dakota to the south and Montana to the west. North Dakota is the 19th-largest state by area in the U.S....
, Nevada
Nevada
Nevada is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. With an area of and a population of about 2.7 million, it is the 7th-largest and 35th-most populous state. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area, which contains its...
, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, South Dakota
South Dakota
South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux American Indian tribes. Once a part of Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889. The state has an area of and an estimated population of just over...
, Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
, Colorado
Colorado
Colorado is a U.S. state that encompasses much of the Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains...
, and Wyoming
Wyoming
Wyoming is a state in the mountain region of the Western United States. The western two thirds of the state is covered mostly with the mountain ranges and rangelands in the foothills of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, while the eastern third of the state is high elevation prairie known as the High...
, many reservations have over three quarters of their population without high school degrees. This is compared to 12 percent nationwide.
Historical factors
The reservation system was created following the expansion of the United States into tribal lands. Various treaties continually limited the lands Native people were “allowed” to inhabit. As forced relocation progressed, many tribes lost their traditional lifestyles, which centered around community living and hunting and gathering. In policies widely known as “kill the Indian, save the man,” children of Native families were removed from the home and sent to boarding schools, where they were given Western clothes, foods, and educations. They were allowed little communication with families, and discouraged from practicing traditional Native culture or speaking indigenous languages. In some instances, they were physically abused for such practices. When boarding schools closed in the last half of the twentieth century, little came to take their place. Traditional cultures had been severely reduced, local economies had not been developed, families had been broken apart, and the stage for persistent poverty was set.Social and economic isolation
Reservations are isolated from outside communities. Less than ten percent of reservation residents have lived elsewhere. Types of infrastructure considered commonplace in industrialized areas, such as electricity, roads, and plumbing, are often absent.At over 14 percent, the percentage of homes without any electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
on reservations is ten times the national rate. On the Navajo Reservation, nearly 40 percent of homes are without electricity. Furthermore, reservations are often the last to receive updated electrical infrastructure, and are the last places to which service is restored following an outage. In 2008, areas of the Pine Ridge Reservation were without power for more than two weeks following a storm-related outage. In nearby towns off the reservation, power was restored in under 28 hours.
Many key roads serving reservations communities were never designed or built for vehicular traffic. Only 15% of the nearly 28,000 miles of reservation roads are in acceptable conditions and pass current safety regulations. Almost a quarter of reservation households do not have access to a vehicle. However, barely one percent of reservation residents rely on any kind of public transportation. Although the federal government has made funds available to improve transportation on reservations, they have not been taken advantage of.
Modern telecommunications are extremely lacking. Fewer than 10 percent of reservation residents have internet access. Many larger reservations are without cell phone reception.
Geographic factors
Reservation land is often incredibly isolated geographically and absent of natural resourcesNatural Resources
Natural Resources is a soul album released by Motown girl group Martha Reeves and the Vandellas in 1970 on the Gordy label. The album is significant for the Vietnam War ballad "I Should Be Proud" and the slow jam, "Love Guess Who"...
or productive potential. The government reserved naturally rich areas for exploitation by non-Native individuals, corporations, and governments. Some reservations are rich in natural resources, or at least have the potential for development. Such development, though, requires a substantial amount be invested at the onset to build necessary infrastructure. Tribes are at a disadvantage, not having the resources or specialists needed. As such, they contract development out to firms off the reservation, who keep a great majority of the profits. Although the tribe usually receives a nominal amount of profits, they lose the rights to their land and the potential for truly sovereign development. The rule of Native lands by non-natives off the reservation is particularly prevalent on many large, rural reservations in the Midwest and Rocky Mountain regions. Although the land provides opportunity for ranching, few reservation residents possess the capital required to raise cattle. Instead, they lease the land to non-native ranchers for minimal amounts. As the reservation residents do not have alternative ways of making money on the reservation, ranchers can drive the lease rates down to mere dollars a year.
In what is perhaps the most troublesome use of Native lands, the government has used reservations for nuclear testing and disposal. Uranium mining
Uranium mining
Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27% was mined in Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia are the top three producers and together account for 63% of world uranium...
and milling, uranium conversion and enrichment, and nuclear weapons testing have all occurred on reservation lands in the past century. After creating the Nevada Test Site
Nevada Test Site
The Nevada National Security Site , previously the Nevada Test Site , is a United States Department of Energy reservation located in southeastern Nye County, Nevada, about northwest of the city of Las Vegas...
on Western Shoshone
Western Shoshone
Western Shoshone comprises several Shoshone tribes that are indigenous to the Great Basin and have lands identified in the Treaty of Ruby Valley 1863. They resided in Idaho, Nevada, California, and Utah. The tribes are very closely related culturally to the Paiute, Goshute, Bannock, Ute, and...
lands in Nevada, the government tested weapons there between 1951 and 1991. The Western Shoshone people call themselves the “most bombed nation on the planet.” Similar activities happened on Pauite Shoshone lands as well. The use of Reservation Lands as a dumpsite is not limited to nuclear waste. Reservations in relatively close proximity to urban areas have become the site of garbage landfills, adding to the landscape of poverty in these areas.
Local Leadership
Although many tribal governments are extremely successful and develop programs that provide both cultural and economic opportunity, they are not universally beneficial to the people of reservations. Often, local governments will be staffed with individuals from off the reservation, partly because reservation residents tend to lack credentials seen as necessary for leadership positions.Attempts toward change
It is often noted that the reservation system needs change. Some have asserted that the entire system needs to be eliminated, but disagree on what should take its place. Shuichi Nagata has stated that both the reservations and American cities are in stark contrast to traditional Native lifestyles. What is needed, he writes, is something separate from either that combines the cultural richness of reservations with the opportunity of contemporary urban centers.Government aid
Treaties established in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries included provisions that the government would provide food and shelter for American Indians. Each reservation has a commodities office, from which monthly food supplies are given out. Unfortunately, this food tends to be nonperishable, heavy on simple starches, and not nutritionally meaningful. It is often associated with the high rates of obesity and diabetes on reservations. The government also provides the majority of housing on reservations, discussed above.In addition to Native-specific provisions, reservation residents are usually eligible for federal welfare programs and food stamps.The government allows tribes some authority in creating their own versions of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families is one of the United States of America's federal assistance programs. It began on July 2, 1997, and succeeded the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program, providing cash assistance to indigent American families with dependent children through the...
(TANF) with federal monies, but such programs must abide by federal regulations, such as the 60-month limitation. The amount of money allotted depends on the amount individual states spent in prior years. This distribution is flawed, as some states actively withhold money from reservations, contributing to increasing poverty.
Like welfare in other areas, public assistance does not effectively reduce poverty on the reservation. Although it may keep many families from being completely unable to survive, it does not build economies, reinstitute cultural institutions, or create a source of pride for reservation residents. Many reservations are fighting to bring these positive changes through a variety of means.
Casinos
Indian gaming casinos are often considered a potential solution to reservation poverty. Due to their unique relationship with the government, tribes are able to operate commercial casinos on reservations despite gambling laws that prohibit such institutions elsewhere. However, the reality does not often bring change. Many of the reservations facing the most dire poverty also are the most geographically isolated, meaning outside tourists rarely travel to the casinos. Instead, they are visited by reservation residents. Depending on the profit distribution plan of the tribe, this can result in a redistribution of income from many to a few.Welfare reform
Some have suggested that the potential for tribes to take more complete oversight of welfareWelfare
Welfare refers to a broad discourse which may hold certain implications regarding the provision of a minimal level of wellbeing and social support for all citizens without the stigma of charity. This is termed "social solidarity"...
programs holds great potential, Specifically, Elizabeth Zahrt Geib stressed the potential for tribes to define work for purposes of welfare distribution to include traditional tasks and arts more in line with lifestyles before the reservation system was created. The Tanana Chiefs Conference
Tanana Chiefs Conference
Tanana Chiefs Conference , the traditional tribal consortium of the 42 villages of Interior Alaska, is based on a belief in tribal self-determination and the need for regional Native unity...
of Alaska and the Lac du Flambeau Bank of Lake Superior Chippewa
Lake Superior Chippewa
The Lake Superior Chippewa were a historical band of Ojibwe Indians living around Lake Superior in what is now the northern parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.-Origins:...
of Wisconsin have already included hunting and fishing as work activities for purposes of welfare distribution.
Economic development
Some have suggested that private enterprise originating on the reservation is the key. Once a critical mass of business exists, jobs will be created. By keeping the circulation of money on the reservation, economies will grow. The Alaskan Corporations have a unique economic position. Rather than creating reservations, the government divided Alaskan lands into corporations. These corporations then have a business relationship with the government, who can contact with them for any number of tasks. Alaskan corporations have held contracts to deal with defense, sexual harassment regulation, and more. Unfortunately, such contracts have not brought money or economic activity to Alaska. Frequently, large corporations in the continental United States will subcontract with Alaskan Native Corporations. Due to the special arrangements made nearly fifty years ago, contracts with ANCs are free from much regulation, including competitive bidding and spending caps. As such, the subcontractors operate in defiance of usual regulation with only a very small portion of funds ending up in the hands of Alaskan natives. In this way, the Alaskan Native Corporation system is much like the leasing of land to ranchers in the Midwest.Some Native entrepreneurs have brought economic development to their reservations. Small businesses thrive on reservations throughout the country. For example, the Tanka Bar company of Kyle, South Dakota
Kyle, South Dakota
Kyle is a census-designated place in Shannon County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 846 at the 2010 census...
on Pine Ridge produces energy bars using buffalo meat and cranberries that are sold in gourmet grocery stores throughout the country. An artists’ cooperative on the Fort Apache
Fort Apache
-Places:* Fort Apache, Arizona* Fort Apache Indian Reservation, the White Mountain Apache tribe's reservation and former US Army cavalry post near Whiteriver, Arizona* Fuerte Apache, a housing project outside Buenos Aires, Argentina.-Military:...
Reservation sells Native artwork online and is staffed by young reservation residents, providing the artists with business and the employees with important work experience. Unfortunately, for every successful business, there are many that are not able to sustain themselves, and many more ideas without the resources needed to implement them.
Others, though, have stated that conventional capitalist business plans run counter to many Native traditions, which stress community and interdependence rather than individualism and competition.
Others have suggested that it is not the lack of economic activity that is most problematic, it is the absence of private property. These theorists have called for a formal distribution of land rights among tribal members to stimulate reservation economies.
As tribes, families, and communities work to improve conditions of the reservations, leaders can hope to learn what most effectively reduces poverty, improves quality of life, and preserves Native cultures. The historically rooted and deeply persistent poverty is troubling. The question of whether the Reservation system can persist, or needs to be completely overhauled has no easy answer. In the face of extreme adversity, historical abuse and neglect, and severe hardship, reservation residents have preserved their culture as much as possible and will continue to fight for an improved quality of life.
See also
- Indian reservations
- List of Indian reservations in the United States
- Native American gambling enterprisesNative American gambling enterprisesNative American gaming enterprises are gaming businesses operated on Indian reservations or tribal land in the United States. Indian tribes have limited sovereignty over these businesses and therefore are granted the ability to establish gambling enterprises outside of direct state...
- Pine Ridge Indian ReservationPine Ridge Indian ReservationThe Pine Ridge Indian Reservation is an Oglala Sioux Native American reservation located in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was established in 1889 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border...