Proto-Austronesian language - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Proto-Austronesian language is the reconstructed

Linguistic reconstruction

Linguistic reconstruction is the practice of establishing the features of the unattested ancestor of one or more given languages. There are two kinds of reconstruction. Internal reconstruction uses irregularities in a single language to make inferences about an earlier stage of that language...

ancestor of the Austronesian languages

Austronesian languages

The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...

, one of the world's major language families

Language family

A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term 'family' comes from the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a...

. However, Ross (2009) notes that what may be the most divergent languages, Tsou

Tsou language

Tsou is a divergent Austronesian language spoken by the Tsou people of Taiwan.-Classification:Tsou has traditionally been considered part of a Tsouic branch of Austronesian...

, Rukai

Rukai language

Rukai is the mother tongue of the Rukai, one indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian languages language family. There are some 10,000 speakers, some monolingual. There are several dialects, of which Mantauran, Tona, and Maga are divergent.Rukai is...

, and Puyuma

Puyuma language

The Puyuma language is the language of the Puyuma people, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family...

, are not addressed by the reconstructions, which therefore cannot claim to be the protolanguage of the entire family. He calls the unit which has been reconstructed Nuclear Austronesian. Lower-level reconstructions have also been made, and include Proto-Malayo-Polynesian

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language

The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch of the Austronesian language family...

, Proto-Oceanic

Proto-Oceanic language

Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

, and Proto-Polynesian

Proto-Polynesian language

Proto-Polynesian, , is the hypothetical proto-language from which all the modern Polynesian languages descend. Historical linguists have reconstructed the language using the comparative method, in much the same manner as with Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afro-Asiatic...

. Recently, linguists such as Malcolm Ross

Malcolm Ross

Malcolm David Ross is a linguist and professor at the Australian National University. He has published work on Austronesian and Papuan languages, historical linguistics, and language contact.-External links:**...

and Andrew Pawley

Andrew Pawley

Andrew Kenneth Pawley , MA, PhD , FRSNZ, FAHA, is Emeritus Professor at the School of Culture, History & Language of the College of Asia & the Pacific at the Australian National University...

have built large lexicons for Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian.

Phonology

Proto-Austronesian is reconstructed by constructing sets of correspondences among consonants in the various Austronesian languages, according to the comparative method

Comparative method

In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyzes the internal...

. Although in theory the result should be unambiguous, in practice given the large number of languages there are numerous disagreements, with various scholars differing significantly on the number and nature of the phonemes in Proto-Austronesian. In the past, some disagreements concerned whether certain correspondence sets were real or represent sporadic developments in particular languages. For the currently remaining disagreements, however, scholars generally accept the validity of the correspondence sets but disagree on the extent to which the distinctions in these sets can be projected back to proto-Austronesian or represent innovations in particular sets of daughter languages.

Blust's reconstruction

Below are Proto-Austronesian phoneme

Phoneme

In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....

s reconstructed by Robert Blust

Robert Blust

Robert A. Blust is a prominent linguist in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. Blust specializes in the Austronesian languages and has made major contributions to the field of Austronesian linguistics....

, a professor of linguistics at the University of Hawaii at Manoa

University of Hawaii at Manoa

The University of Hawaii at Mānoa is a public, co-educational university and is the flagship campus of the greater University of Hawaii system...

. A total of 25 Proto-Austronesian consonants, 4 vowels, and 4 diphthong

Diphthong

A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...

s were reconstructed. However, Blust acknowledges that some of the reconstructed consonants are still controversial and debated.

The symbols below are frequently used in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words.

*C: voiceless alveolar affricate
Voiceless alveolar affricate
The voiceless alveolar affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨⟩ or ⟨⟩ . The voiceless alveolar affricate occurs in such languages as German, Cantonese, Italian, Russian, Japanese and Mandarin...
*c: voiceless palatal affricate
Voiceless palatal affricate
The voiceless palatal affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is . The voiceless palatal affricate occurs in such languages as Hungarian and Skolt Sami, amongst others. The consonant is...
*q: uvular
Uvular stop
In phonetics and phonology, a uvular stop is a type of consonantal sound, made with the back of the tongue in contact the uvula, which hangs down in front of the throat , held tightly enough to block the passage of air ....

or glottal stop
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, or more fully, the voiceless glottal plosive, is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. In English, the feature is represented, for example, by the hyphen in uh-oh! and by the apostrophe or [[ʻokina]] in Hawaii among those using a preservative pronunciation of...
*z: voiced palatal affricate
Voiced palatal affricate
The voiced palatal affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is . The voiceless alveolar affricate occurs in such languages as Hungarian and Skolt Sami, among others...
*D: voiced retroflex stop
*j: palatalized
Palatalization
In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....

voiced velar stop
*S: voiceless alveolar fricative
Voiceless alveolar fricative
The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in spoken languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet as . It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound...
*N: palatalized
Palatalization
In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....

alveolar lateral
*r: alveolar flap
*R: alveolar
Alveolar trill
The alveolar trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar trills is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r. It is commonly called the rolled R, rolling R, or trilled R...

or uvular trill
Uvular trill
The uvular trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , a small capital R...

caption | **Proto-Austronesian Consonants**
	Labial Labial consonant Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...	Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth...	Palatal Palatal consonant Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate...	Retroflex Retroflex consonant A retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology...	Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....	Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider...
Unvoiced stop Stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...	p /p/	t /t/			k /k/	q /q/ or /ʔ/
Voiced stop Stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...	b /b/	d /d/		D /ɖ/	g /ɡ/; j /ɡʲ/
Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...	m /m/	n /n/	ɲ /ɲ/		ŋ /ŋ/
Fricative Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or...		S /s/	s /ç/			h /h/
Affricate Affricate consonant Affricates are consonants that begin as stops but release as a fricative rather than directly into the following vowel.- Samples :...		C /t͡s/	c /c͡ç/, z /ɟ͡ʝ/
Lateral Lateral consonant A lateral is an el-like consonant, in which airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth....		l /l/	N /lʲ/
Tap Flap consonant In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator is thrown against another.-Contrast with stops and trills:... or trill Trill consonant In phonetics, a trill is a consonantal sound produced by vibrations between the articulator and the place of articulation. Standard Spanish <rr> as in perro is an alveolar trill, while in Parisian French it is almost always uvular....		r /ɾ/; R /r/ or /ʀ/
Approximant Approximant consonant Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no...	w /w/		y /j/

The Proto-Austronesian vowel

Vowel

In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...

s are a, i, u, and ə.

caption | **Proto-Austronesian Vowels**
Height	Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also...	Central Central vowel A central vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel...	Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark...
Close Close vowel A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.This term is prescribed by the...	i /i/		u /u/
Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel...		ə /ə/
Open Open vowel An open vowel is defined as a vowel sound in which the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth. Open vowels are sometimes also called low vowels in reference to the low position of the tongue...		a /a/

The diphthong

Diphthong

s, which are diachronic sources of individual vowels, are:

*-ay
*-aw
*-uy
*-iw

Other reconstructions

According to Malcolm Ross, the following aspects of Blust's system are uncontroversial: the labials (p b m w); the velars k ŋ; y; R; the vowels; and the above four diphthongs. There is some disagreement about the postvelars (q ʔ h) and the velars g j, and about whether there are any more diphthongs; however, in these respects, Ross and Blust are in agreement.

The major disagreement concerns the system of coronal consonant

Coronal consonant

Coronal consonants are consonants articulated with the flexible front part of the tongue. Only the coronal consonants can be divided into apical , laminal , domed , or subapical , as well as a few rarer orientations, because only the front of the tongue has such...

s. The following discussion is based on Ross 1992.

Dempwolff's reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian from the 1930s included dental t d n l; retroflex ṭ ḍ ḷ; and palatal t' d' n'. He also included palatal k' g', which are an additional source of dispute.

Dyen, including data from the Formosan languages, expanded Dempwolff's set of coronal consonants. Dempwolff's ṭ was split into T C Z; ḷ was split into r S X x; t' was split into s₁ s₂; and l ḍ d' n' k' g' were renotated as L/N D z ñ c j.

Tsuchida, building on Dyen's system, further split d into D₁ D₂ D₃ D₄. He also believed that Dyen's c (Dempwolff's k') could not be reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian. (In addition, he split Dyen's w into w W and q into q Q, which were not accepted by later scholars.)

Dahl reduced Tsuchida's D₁ D₂ D₃ D₄ into d₃ d₂ d₁ d₃ (with the new d₃ reflecting the combination of the old D₁ and D₄) and combined Dyen's S X x into a single phoneme S. He did accept Dyen's c but did not accept his T D. (He also renotated a number of phonemes in ways that were not generally accepted by later scholars.)

Blust based his system on a combination of Dyen, Tsuchida and Dahl, and attempted to reduce the total number of phonemes. He accepted Dahl's reduction of Dyen's S X x into S but did not accept either Tsuchida's or Dahl's split of Dyen's d; in addition, he reduced Dyen's s₁ s₂ to a single phoneme s. While accepting Dyen's c, he was hesitant about T and D. (More recently, Blust appears to have accepted D but rejected T, and also rejected Z.)

Ross likewise attempted to reduce the number of phonemes, but in a different way:

He accepts Dahl's d₁ d₂ d₃ and also Z (eventually rejected by Blust). He notes that the distinction between d₁ and d₂ d₃ is only reconstructable for the Formosan language groups Amis, Proto-Puyuma and Proto-Paiwan, and only Proto-Paiwan has a three-way distinction among d₁ d₂ d₃; contrarily the distinction between Z and d₁ is reconstructable only for Proto-Rukai and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, but not any of the previous three groups. However, he still believes (contra Blust) that the distinction among these phonemes is an inheritance from Proto-Austronesian rather than an innovation in the respective groups.
He notes that d₁ occurs only morpheme-initially, while r occurs only morpheme-non-initially, and as a result combines the two.
He does not accept the phonemes c z ñ in Proto-Austronesian, and asserts that none of them are "readily reconstructable" outside of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. Furthermore, while he believes that ñ was a general innovation in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, c and z "are reflected differently from PMP [Proto-Malayo-Polynesian] *s and *d only in a fairly limited area of western Indo-Malaysia and appear to be the results of local developments".

Ross also reconstructs the coronals somewhat differently. He believes that C S l d₃ were all retroflex (respectively, /tʂ/; /ʂ/ or /ʃ/; /ɭ/ or /ɽ/; /ɖ/), and s and L (Blust's N) were dental /s/ and /l/, as opposed to Blust's reconstruction as dental and palatal, respectively. According to Ross, this is based on their outcomes in the Formosan languages and Javanese; although their outcomes as dental/palatal is geographically more distributed, it occurs only in the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which represent a single clade with respect to the Formosan languages.

Sound changes

As Proto-Austronesian transitioned to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language

The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch of the Austronesian language family...

, Proto-Oceanic

Proto-Oceanic language

Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

, and Proto-Polynesian

Proto-Polynesian language

, the phonemic inventories were continually reduced by merging formerly distinct sounds into one sound. 3 mergers were observed in the Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian transition, while 9 were observed for the Proto-Oceanic

Proto-Oceanic language

Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

to Proto-Polynesian

Proto-Polynesian language

transition. Thus, Proto-Austronesian has the most elaborate sound system, while Proto-Polynesian has the least phonemes. For instance, the Hawaiian language

Hawaiian language

The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the state of Hawaii...

is famous for having only 8 consonants, while Maori

Maori language

Māori or te reo Māori , commonly te reo , is the language of the indigenous population of New Zealand, the Māori. It has the status of an official language in New Zealand...

has 10 only consonants. This is a sharp reduction from the 25 consonants of the Proto-Austronesian language that was originally spoken in Taiwan or possibly southern China.

Blust also observed the following mergers and sound changes between Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian.

Proto-Austronesian and
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Sound Changes
Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
*C/t	*t
*N/n	*n
*S/h	*h
*eS	*ah

Proto-Oceanic

Proto-Oceanic language

Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

merged even more phonemes. This is why modern-day Polynesian languages

Polynesian languages

The Polynesian languages are a language family spoken in the region known as Polynesia. They are classified as part of the Austronesian family, belonging to the Oceanic branch of that family. They fall into two branches: Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Polynesians share many cultural traits...

have some of the most restricted consonant inventories in the world.

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and
Proto-Oceanic Sound Changes
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic
*b/p	*p
*mb/mp	*b
*c/s/z/j	*s
*nc/nd/nz/nj	*j
*g/k	*k
*ŋg/ŋk	*g
*d/r	*r
*e/-aw	*o
*-i/uy/iw	*i

Interesting sound changes that occurred within the Austronesian language family are:

Proto-Oceanic
Proto-Oceanic language
Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

*t > k in Hawaiian, Samoan, and Luanguia
Proto-Polynesian
Proto-Polynesian language
Proto-Polynesian, , is the hypothetical proto-language from which all the modern Polynesian languages descend. Historical linguists have reconstructed the language using the comparative method, in much the same manner as with Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afro-Asiatic...

*l and *r > ŋg in Rennellese
Proto-Oceanic
Proto-Oceanic language
Proto-Oceanic is a protolanguage that language comparatists – particularly after Otto Dempwolff's works – have proposed as the probable common ancestor to the group of Oceanic languages...

*w and *y > p in Levei and Drehet
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *w or *b > Sundanese c- or -nc-

Word order

Proto-Austronesian is a verb-initial language (including VSO

VSO

VSO is a three-letter acronym with multiple meanings, as described below:* Voluntary Service Overseas, an international development charity* Valdosta Southern Railroad...

and VOS

Vos

Vos or VOS may refer to:In computing:* Hitachi VOS, a mainframe computer operating system by Hitachi Data Systems* Stratus VOS, a fault-tolerant computer operating system, developed by Stratus...

word orders), as most Formosan languages

Formosan languages

The Formosan languages are the languages of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. Taiwanese aborigines currently comprise about 2% of the island's population. However, far fewer can still speak their ancestral language, after centuries of language shift...

, all Philippine languages

Philippine languages

The Philippine languages are a 1991 proposal by Robert Blust that all the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi—except Sama–Bajaw and a few languages of Palawan—form a subfamily of Austronesian languages...

, some Bornean languages

Bornean languages

The Bornean languages are the Austronesian language families indigenous to the island of Borneo, with the exclusion of Ibanic and other Malayic languages....

, all Austronesian dialects of Madagascar

Madagascar

The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...

, and all Polynesian languages

Polynesian languages

are verb-initial. However, most Austronesian (many of which are Oceanic) languages of Indonesia

Indonesia

Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...

, New Guinea

New Guinea

New Guinea is the world's second largest island, after Greenland, covering a land area of 786,000 km2. Located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, it lies geographically to the east of the Malay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes included as part of a greater Indo-Australian Archipelago...

, New Caledonia

New Caledonia

New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia and about from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of...

, Vanuatu

Vanuatu

Vanuatu , officially the Republic of Vanuatu , is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.Vanuatu was...

, the Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands is a sovereign state in Oceania, east of Papua New Guinea, consisting of nearly one thousand islands. It covers a land mass of . The capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal...

, and Micronesia

Micronesia

Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....

are SVO

SVO

SVO is an acronym for several terms:* Mustang SVO, a car developed by Ford Motor Company* Saturn Valley Online, an EarthBound MMORPG.* Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow, Russia, IATA Airport Code...

, or verb-medial, languages. SOV

SOV

SOV is an acronym for several terms:in organizations*Same Old Vanderbilt, usually refers to Vanderbilt Commodores football by their fans due to lack of success over the years*Stade Olympique Voironnais, a French rugby union club...

, or verb-final, word order is considered to be typologically unusual for Austronesian languages, and is only found in various Austronesian languages of New Guinea

New Guinea

and to a more limited extent, the Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands

. This is because SOV word order is very common in the non-Austronesian Papuan languages

Papuan languages

The Papuan languages are those languages of the western Pacific which are neither Austronesian nor Australian. The term does not presuppose a genetic relationship. The concept of Papuan peoples as distinct from Melanesians was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892.-The...

Voice system

The Austronesian languages of Taiwan

Taiwan

Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...

, Borneo

Borneo

Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....

, and the Philippines

Philippines

The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...

are also well known for their unusual morphosyntactic alignment

Morphosyntactic alignment

In linguistics, morphosyntactic alignment is the system used to distinguish between the arguments of transitive verbs and those of intransitive verbs...

, which is known as the Austronesian alignment

Austronesian alignment

Austronesian alignment, commonly known as the Philippine- or Austronesian-type voice system, is a typologically unusual morphosyntactic alignment that combines features of ergative and accusative languages...

. This alignment was also present in the Proto-Austronesian language. Unlike Proto-Austronesian, however, Proto-Oceanic syntax does not make use of the focus morphology present in Austronesian-aligned languages such as the Philippine languages

Philippine languages

. In the Polynesian languages

Polynesian languages

, verbal morphology is relatively simple, while the main unit in a sentence is the phrase rather than the word.

Below is a table of John Wolff's Proto-Austronesian voice system from Blust (2009:433). Wolff's "four-voice" system was derived from evidence in various Formosan and Philippine languages.

Proto-Austronesian Voice System
	Independent (non-past)	Independent (past)	Future-general action	Dependent	Subjunctive
Actor voice	-um-	-inum-	?	ø	-a
Direct passive	-en	-in-	r- -en	-a	?
Local passive	-an	-in-an	r- -an	-i	-ay
Instrumental passive	i-	i- -in- (?)	?	-an (?)	?

Interrogatives and case markers

The following table compares Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian question words.

Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Question Words
English	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
what	*(n)-anu	*apa
who	*(si)-ima	*i-sai
where	*i-nu	*i nu
when	*ija-n	*p-ijan
how	*(n)-anu	*ku(j)a

Currently, the most complete reconstruction of the Proto-Austronesian case marker system is offered by Malcolm Ross

Malcolm Ross

. The reconstructed case markers are as follows:

Proto-Austronesian Case Markers
	Common nouns	Singular personal nouns	Plural personal nouns
Neutral	[y]a, u	*i	–
Nominative	*k-a	*k-u	–
Genitive	n-a, n-u	*n-i	*n-i-a
Accusative	C-a, C-u	*C-i	–
Oblique	s-a, s-u	–	–
Locative	*d-a	–	–

Important Proto-Austronesian grammatical words include the ligature *na and locative *i.

Morphology

Morphology (linguistics)

In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...

and syntax

Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....

are often hard to separate in the Austronesian languages, particularly the Philippine languages

Philippine languages

. This is because the morphology of the verbs often affects how the rest of the sentence would be constructed (i.e., syntax).

Affixes

Below are some Proto-Austronesian affix

Affix

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes...

es (including prefix

Prefix

A prefix is an affix which is placed before the root of a word. Particularly in the study of languages,a prefix is also called a preformative, because it alters the form of the words to which it is affixed.Examples of prefixes:...

es, infix

Infix

An infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem . It contrasts with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the end of a stem, such as a prefix or suffix.-Indonesian:...

es, and suffix

Suffix

In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs...

es) reconstructed by Robert Blust

Robert Blust

. For instance, *pa- was used for non-stative (i.e., dynamic) causatives, while *pa-ka was used for stative causatives (Blust 2009:282). Blust also noted a p/m pairing phenomenon in which many affixes have both p- and m- forms. This system is especially elaborate in the Thao language

Thao language

Thao , also known as Sao, is the language of the Thao people, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. In 2000 there were approximately 5 or 6 speakers living in Dehua village , all but one of whom were over the age of sixty...

of Taiwan.

Proto-Austronesian Affixes
Affix	Gloss
*ka-	inchoative Inchoative Inchoative aspect is a grammatical aspect, referring to the beginning of an action or state. It can be found in conservative Indo-European languages such as Latin and Lithuanian, and also in Finnic languages. It should not be confused with the prospective, which denotes actions that are about to... (Formosan only), stative, past time, accompanied action/person, abstract noun formative, manner in which an action is carried out, past participle
*ma-	stative
*maka-	abilitative/aptative
*maki/paki	petitive (petitioning for something)
*maŋ	actor voice
*paŋ	instrumental voice
*maʀ-	actor voice
*paʀ-	instrumental noun
*mu-	movement
*pa(-ka-)	causative
*paʀi-	reciprocal/collective action
*qali/kali-	sensitive connection with the spirit world
*Sa-	instrumental voice
*Si-	instrumental voice
*-an	instrumental voice: imperative
*Sika-	ordinal numeral
*ta(ʀ-)	sudden, unexpected, or accidental action
*-um-	actor voice: transitivity, etc.
*-in-	perfective, nominalizer
*-ar-	plural
*-an	locative voice
*-i	locative voice: imperative
*-en	patient voice
*-a	patient voice: imperative
*-ay	future
*ka- -an	adversative passive, abstract nouns

Reduplication

CV (consonant + vowel) reduplication

Reduplication

Reduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....

is very common among the Austronesian languages. In Proto-Austronesian, Ca-reduplicated (consonant + /a/) numbers were used to count humans, while the non-reduplicated sets were used to count non-human and inanimate objects. CV-reduplication was also used to nominalize verbs in Proto-Austronesian. In the Ilokano language

Ilokano language

Ilokano or Ilocano is the third most-spoken language of the Republic of the Philippines....

, CV-reduplication is used to pluralize nouns.

Reduplication

Reduplication

Reduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....

patterns include (Blust 2009):

Full reduplication
Full reduplication plus affixation
Full reduplication minus the coda
Full reduplication minus the last vowel
Full reduplication with vocalic or consonantal change, or both
Full reduplication with consecutive identical syllables
Prefixal foot reduplication/leftward reduplication
Suffixal foot reduplication/rightward reduplication
CVC-reduplication
CV-reduplication (marks durative aspect, collectivity, or intensity in Bunun; future in Tagalog)
CV-reduplication plus affixation
Ca-reduplication (used to derive human-counting numerals and deverbal instrumental nouns in Thao and Puyuma)
Extensions of fixed segmentism
Reduplicative infixes
Suffixal syllable reduplication

Other less common patterns are (Blust 2009):

Vacuous reduplication (occurs in Paamese)
Full reduplication minus the initial (occurs in Anejom of southern Vanuatu)
Full reduplication plus an initial glide (occurs in Kosraean)
Partial reduplication minus initial glottal stop (occurs in Rennellese)
True CV-reduplication (occurs in Pangasinan)
Rightward trisyllabic reduplication (occurs in the Manam language)
Double reduplication (occurs in Woleaian)
Triplication (only in the Thao language
Thao language
Thao , also known as Sao, is the language of the Thao people, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. In 2000 there were approximately 5 or 6 speakers living in Dehua village , all but one of whom were over the age of sixty...

)
Serial reduplication (only in the Thao language
Thao language
Thao , also known as Sao, is the language of the Thao people, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. In 2000 there were approximately 5 or 6 speakers living in Dehua village , all but one of whom were over the age of sixty...

)

Pronouns

The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronoun

Personal pronoun

Personal pronouns are pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. All known languages contain personal pronouns.- English personal pronouns :English in common use today has seven personal pronouns:*first-person singular...

s below were reconstructed by Robert Blust

Robert Blust

Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Pronouns
Type of Pronoun	English	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
1s.	"I"	*i-aku	*i-aku
2s.	"you"	*i-(ka)Su	*i-kahu
3s.	"he/she/it"	*si-ia	*si-ia
1p. (inclusive)	"we (and you)"	*i-(k)ita	*i-(k)ita
1p. (exclusive)	"we (but not you)"	*i-(k)ami	*i-(k)ami
2p.	"you all"	*i-kamu	*i-kamu, ihu
3p.	"they"	*si-ida	*si-ida

In 2006, Malcolm Ross

Malcolm Ross

also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.

Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)
Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)
Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)
Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)
Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)
Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)
Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)

The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.

Proto-Austronesian Personal Pronouns
	Free	Free polite	Genitive 1	Genitive 2	Genitive 3
1s.	*[i-]aku	–	*=ku	*maku	*n-aku
2s.	*[i-]Su	*[i-]ka-Su	*=Su	*miSu	*ni-Su
3s.	*s(i)-ia	–	(*=ia)	–	*n(i)-ia
1p. (excl.)	*i-ami	*[i-]k-ami	*=mi	*mami	*n(i)-ami
1p. (incl.)	*([i])ita	*[i-]k-ita	*=ta	*mita	*n-ita
2p.	*i-amu	*[i-]k-amu	*=mu	*mamu	*n(i)-amu
3p.	*si-da	–	(*=da)	–	*ni-da

Nouns

Proto-Austronesian vocabulary relating to agriculture and other technological innovations include:

*pajay: rice plant
*beRas: husked rice
*Semay: cooked rice
*qayam: bird (means "domesticated animal" in PMP)
*manuk: chicken (PMP *manu-manuk means "bird")
*babuy: pig
*qaNuaŋ: carabao
Carabao
The carabao or Bubalus bubalis carabanesis is a subspecies of the domesticated water buffalo found in the Philippines, Guam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and various parts of Southeast Asia...
*kuden: clay cooking pot
*SadiRi: housepost
*busuR: bow
*panaq: flight of an arrow
*bubu: fish trap
*tulaNi: bamboo nose flute

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian innovations include:

*puqun: base of a tree; origin, cause
*sumpit: blowpipe
*haRezan: notched log ladder (used to enter pile dwellings)
*taytay: bamboo suspension bridge (POc *tete "ladder, bridge")
*kaka: elder same sex sibling
*huaji: younger same sex sibling
*ñaRa: brother of a woman
*betaw: sister of a man

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian also has several words for house:

*balay (house, building for public use)
*Rumaq (house, family dwelling)
*banua (land, village, house, country, sky, heaven) – hence vanua
Vanua
The word vanua – meaning "land," "home," or "village" – occurs in several Austronesian languages, and derives from the Proto-Austronesian banua. The word has particular significance in several countries.-In Fiji:...
*lepaw (granary)
*kamaliR (bachelors' clubhouse)

Body parts
Body part	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
hand	*(qa)lima	*(qa)lima	*lima	*lima
leg, foot	*qaqay	*qaqay	*waqe	*waqe
head	*qulu	*qulu	*qulu	*qulu
eye	*maCa	*mata	*mata	*mata
ear	*Caliŋa	*taliŋa	*taliŋa	*taliŋa
nose	*mujiŋ	*ijuŋ	*isuŋ	*isu
mouth	*ŋusu	*baqbaq	*papaq	*ŋutu
blood	*daRaq	*daRaq	*draRaq	*toto
liver	*qaCay	*qatay	*qate	*qate
bone	*CuqelaN	*tuqelaŋ	*suri	*hui

Kinship terms
Kinship	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
person, human being	*Cau	*tau	*taumataq	*taŋata
mother	*t-ina	*t-ina	*tina	*tinana
father	*t-ama	*t-ama	*tama	*tamana
child	*aNak	*anak	*natu	*tama
man, male	*ma-Ruqanay	laki, ma-Ruqanay	*mwaRuqane	*taqane
woman, female	*bahi	*bahi	pine, papine	*fafine
house	*Rumaq	Rumaq, balay, *banua	*Rumwaq	*fale

Animals
Animal	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
dog	*asu	*asu	–	–
bird	*qayam	qayam, manuk	*manuk	*manu
snake	*SulaR	hulaR, nipay	*mwata	*ŋata
louse	*kuCu	*kutu	*kutu	*kutu
fish	*Sikan	*hikan	*ikan	*ika

Colors and directions

Below are colors in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian. The first three have been reconstructed by Robert Blust

Robert Blust

, while the Proto-Polynesian words given below were reconstructed by Andrew Pawley

Andrew Pawley

Andrew Kenneth Pawley , MA, PhD , FRSNZ, FAHA, is Emeritus Professor at the School of Culture, History & Language of the College of Asia & the Pacific at the Australian National University...

. Proto-Polynesian displays many innovations not found in the other proto-languages.

Colors
Color	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
white	*ma-puNi	*ma-putiq	*ma-puteq	*tea
black	*ma-CeŋeN	*ma-qitem	*ma-qetom	*quli(-quli)
red	*ma-puteq	*ma-iRaq	*meRaq	*kula
yellow	–	*ma-kunij	*aŋo	reŋareŋa, felo(-felo)
green	*mataq	*mataq	*karakarawa	*mata (?)

The Proto-Austronesians used two types of directions, which are the land-sea axis and the monsoon axis. The cardinal directions of north, south, east, and west developed among the Austronesian languages only after contact with the Europeans. For the land-sea axis, upstream/uphill and inland, as well as downstream/downhill and seaward, are synonym pairs. This has been proposed as evidence that Proto-Austronesians used to live on a mainland, since the sea would be visible from all angles on small islands.

*daya: inland (also upstream/uphill)
*lahud: seaward (also downstream/downhill)
*SabaRat: west monsoon
*timuR: east monsoon
*qamiS: north wind

Interestingly, in Kavalan, Amis, and Tagalog, the reflexes of *timuR mean "south" or "south wind," while in the languages of the southern Philippines and Indonesia it means "east" or "east wind."

In Ilokano

Ilokano language

Ilokano or Ilocano is the third most-spoken language of the Republic of the Philippines....

, dáya and láud respectively mean "east" and "west," while in Puyuma

Puyuma language

The Puyuma language is the language of the Puyuma people, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family...

, ɖaya and ɭauɖ respectively mean "west" and "east." This is because the Ilokano homeland is the west coast of northern Luzon, while the Puyuma homeland is located on the eastern coast of southern Taiwan. Among the Bontok, Kankanaey, and Ifugaw languages of northern Luzon, the reflexes of *daya mean "sky" due to the fact that they already live in some of the highest elevations in the Philippines (Blust 2009:301).

Also, the Malay

Malay language

Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...

reflex of *lahud is laut, which means "sea", used as directions timur laut (means "northeast", timur = "east") and barat laut (means "northwest", barat = "west"). Meanwhile *daya only performs in barat daya, which means "southwest".

On the other hand, the Javanese

Javanese language

Javanese language is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. In addition, there are also some pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java...

reflex of *lahud, lor, means "north" (since the Java Sea

Java Sea

The Java Sea is a large shallow sea on the Sunda Shelf. It was formed as sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age. The Java Sea lies between the Indonesian islands of Borneo to the north, Java to the south; Sumatra to the west, and Sulawesi to the east...

is located to the north of Java Island).

Numerals

Below are reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian numbers from the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database.

Numerals
Number	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
one	esa, isa	esa, isa	sa-kai, ta-sa, tai, kai	*taha
two	*duSa	*duha	*rua	*rua
three	*telu	*telu	*tolu	*tolu
four	*Sepat	*epat	pat, pati, *pani	*faa
five	*lima	*lima	*lima	*lima

The Proto-Austronesian language had different sets of numerals for non-humans ("set A") and humans ("set B") (Blust 2009:279). Cardinal numerals for counting humans are derived from the non-human numerals through Ca-reduplication. This bipartite numeral system is found in Thao, Puyuma, Yami, Chamorro, and various other languages (however, Paiwan uses ma- and manə- to derive human numerals). In many Philippine languages such as Tagalog, the two numeral systems are merged (Blust 2009:280-281).

isa – set A
dalawa – set B
tatlo – set B
apat – set B (cf. Puyuma pat and a-apat)
lima – set A
anim – set B (cf. Puyuma ʔənəm and a-ʔnəm)
pito – set A
walo – set A
siyam – set A
sampu – set A

Proto-Austronesian also used *Sika- to derive ordinal numerals (Blust 2009:281).

Verbs

Below are reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian verbs from the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database.

Verbs
Verb	Proto-Austronesian	Proto-Malayo-Polynesian	Proto-Oceanic	Proto-Polynesian
to walk	*Nakaw	*lakaw, paNaw	*lako, pano	*fano
to swim	*Naŋuy	*naŋuy	*kakaRu	*kaukau
to know	*bajaq	*taqu	*taqu	*qiloa
to think	*nemnem	*demdem	*rodrom	*manatu
to sleep	*tuduR	*tuduR	*turuR	*mohe
to stand	*diRi	diRi, tuqud	*tuqur	*tuqu
to sew	*taSiq	tahiq, zaqit	saqit, turi	*tui
to die, be dead	*m-aCay	*m-atay	*mate	*mate
to choose	*piliq	*piliq	*piliq	*fili
to fly	*layap	*layap, Rebek	*Ropok	*lele

Monosyllabic roots

The following are monosyllabic Proto-Austronesian roots reconstructed by John Wolff (Wolff 1999).
Forms which can be reconstructed as monosyllables with a great deal of certainty

*baw 'up, above'
*bay 'woman'
*beg 'spool, wind'
*bit 'carry in fingers'
*buñ 'fontanelle'
*but 'pluck out'
*dem 'think, brood'
*gem 'first, hold in fist'
*ɣiq 'Imperata cylindrica'
*kan 'eat'
- *si-kan 'fish, what is eaten with staple'
- *pa-kan 'feed, weft'
- *paN-kan 'eat, feed'
*kub
- *kubkub 'cover over'
- *takub 'cover over in a cupped way' (where *ta- is a fossilized prefix)
*lid
- *belit 'wind'
- *bilid 'wind, twist, or fold s.t. over'
- *pulid 'turn round'
*luk 'concave bend'
*lum 'ripe'
*nem 'six'
*ñam 'taste'
*ñeŋ 'look, stare'
*ŋa 'agape (mouth)'
- *kaŋa 'be open (as mouth)'
- *baŋa 'gap, stand open'
- *binaŋa (< -in- + baŋa) / *minaŋa 'mouth of river'
- *beŋa 'be agape'
- *búŋa 'flower'
- *paŋa 'forking'
- *ʃaŋa 'branch'
*pan 'bait'
*pat 'four'
*peʃ 'squeeze, deflate'
*pit
- *kepit 'pinched together'
*pu 'grandparent/child'
*put 'blow'
*ʃaw 'wash, rinse off, dunk'
*ʃay 'who?'
*ʃek 'stuff, fill chock full'
*ʃeŋ 'stop up'
*ʃep 'suck'
*ʃuk 'go in, throuɣ'
*taw 'man'
*tay 'bridge'
- *matay 'die'
- *patay 'dead, kill'
*tuk 'strike, peck, beak'

Sequences which are likely (or nay have been) monosyllabic roots, but cannot be unequivocally reconstructed

*baŋ 'fly'
*bu 'fish trap'
*buʃ 'puff, blow out' (not well attested; most monosyllables occur in Oceanic languages)
*dañ 'old (of things)'
*daŋ 'heat near a fire'
*dem 'dark, cloudy'
- *padem 'extinguish'
*diʃ 'cut, lance'
*ka 'elder sibling'
*kid 'file, rasp'
*lag 'spread out'
- *belag 'spread out'
- *pálag 'palm of hand'
- *qelag 'wing'
*laŋ 'placed lengthwise'
- *galaŋ 'wedge, s.t. placed underneath to support'
- *halaŋ 'lie athwart, bar, be an obstacle'
*leb 'for water to come over s.t.'
*lem – reflexes variously mean 'night' or 'darkness'
*luñ
- *luluñ 'roll up'
- *baluñ 'fold over, wrap'
*muɣuɣ 'gargle, einse out mouth' (monosyllabic status is weak)
*pak 'make a sound of 'pak', wings (from the sound)'
*tan 'set trap'
*taʃ 'top'
*tuk 'top, summit'
*tun 'lead on a rope'

Reconstructed doubled monosyllables phonologically but which cannot be proven to be monosyllabic roots

*baba 'carry on back'
*bakbak 'remove outer layer of skin, bark'
*baqbaq 'mouth'
*bañbañ 'kind of reed used for mats, Donax canniformis'
*bekbek 'pulverize'
*biɣbiɣ 'lips (lip-like growth)'
*biŋbiŋ 'hold, guide'
*biʃbiʃ 'sprinkle'
*buɣ(buɣ) 'broken into small pieces'
*buñbuñ 'down, body hair' (only in Taiwan and the Philippines; probably not PAn)
*dabdab 'set fire to'
*dakdak 'slam s.t. down' (only in the Philippines)
*dasdas 'chest'
*debdeb 'chest'
*diŋdiŋ 'wall'
*diqdiq 'boil'
*gapgap 'feel, grope'
*ɣaʃɣaʃ 'scratched'
*idid 'move rapidly in small motions' (e.g., 'fan')
*jutjut 'pull at'
*kaŋkaŋ 'spread the legs' (only in the Philippines and western Indonesia)
- *bakaŋ 'bow-legged'
- *kaqkaq 'split, torn, with intestines'
- *keŋkeŋ 'rigid, tight'
*kepkep 'clasp'
- *dakep 'catch'
- *ʃikep 'catch s.t. moving, tight'
*kiskis 'scrape off'
*kiʃkiʃ 'grate, file'
*kudkud 'grate, rasp, scratch out'
*kañuskus 'fingernail'
*kuʃkuʃ 'rub, scrape'
*laplap 'flapping, loose (like skin on newborn)' (only in Paiwan and Philippine languages)
*mekmek 'fragments'
*neknek 'gnat, fruit fly'
*nemnem 'think'
*palaqpaq 'frond'
*pejpej 'press together'
*ququ 'crab'
*sapsap 'grope'
*ʃaʃa 'collect palm leaves for thatching'
*ʃakʃak 'beat, chop'
*ʃelʃel 'regret'
*ʃelʃel 'insert, cram in'
*ʃiʃi 'kind of mollusk'
*ʃikʃik 'search through thoroughly (as for lice)'
*ʃuʃu 'breast, teat'
*ʃuɣʃuɣ 'follow behind'
*ʃuŋʃuŋ 'go against' (only in the Philippines and western Indonesia)
*taktak 'fall, drop'
*tamtam 'smack lips' or taste'
*taʃtaʃ 'rent, break thread'
- *bútaʃ 'hole'
- *ɣetaʃ 'break through, break open'
- *teʃteʃ 'rip open'
*tutu 'strike'
*waqwaq 'channel'
*witwit 'swinging to and fro'

Sequences which occur as final syllables over a wide area but which cannot be reconstructed as a monosyllabic root

*buk
- *dabuk 'ashes'
- *dábuk 'beat to pulp'
- *ɣabuk 'pulverized'
- *qabuk 'dust'
- *bun 'heap, stack'
- *subun 'heap, pile'
- *timbun / *tábun (?) 'heap'
*bun 'dew mist'
- *ɣábun 'fog'
*buq 'add, increase'
- *tubuq 'grow, shoot'
*duŋ 'protect, shelter'
*ket
- *deket 'near'
- *jeket 'stick'
- *ñiket / ñaŋket 'sticky'
- *ñiket 'sticky substance'
- *siket 'tie'
*kuŋ
- *bekuŋ 'arch'
- *dekuŋ 'bent'
- *leŋkuŋ 'bent'
*kup
- *aŋkup 'put in cupped hands'
- *tukup 'cover'
*kut
- *dakut 'take in hand'
- *ɣakut 'tie together'
- *ʃaŋkut 'caught on a hook'
*laq
- *telaq / *kelaq 'crack' or 'split'
- *belaq 'cleft'
*liŋ
- *baliŋ 'wind around, turn s.t. around'
- *biliŋ 'turning round'
- *giliŋ 'roll over s.t.'
- *guliŋ 'roll up'
- *paliŋ 'wind around' or 'turn body'
*liw
- *baliw 'return, go back'
- *ʃaliw 'give in exchange'
*luʃ 'slip' or 'slippery' or 'smooth'
*naw
- *línaw 'calm, unroiled'
- *tiqenaw 'clear'
*ŋaw
- *baŋaw 'bedbug'
- *láŋaw 'fly'
- *tuŋaw 'kind of mite causing itch'
*ŋet
- *qaŋet 'warm'
- *ʃeŋet 'sharp, stinger'
- *ʃeŋet 'acrid in smell'
*paɣ 'be flat'
- *dampaɣ / *lampaɣ / *dapaɣ / *lapaɣ 'be flat'
- *sampaɣ 'mat, spread out'
*puŋ 'cluster, bunch'
*taɣ
- *dataɣ 'flat area'

External links

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Phonology

Blust's reconstruction

Other reconstructions

Sound changes

Word order

Voice system

Interrogatives and case markers

Morphology

Affixes

Reduplication

Pronouns

Nouns

Colors and directions

Numerals

Verbs

Monosyllabic roots

See also

External links