Austronesian personal pronouns
Encyclopedia
This article describes the personal
pronoun
systems of various Austronesian languages
.
Proto-languages
The Proto-Austronesian
and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronoun
s below were reconstructed by Robert Blust
.
In 2006, Malcolm Ross
also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.
Saisiyat has an elaborate pronominal system (Hsieh & Huang 2006:93).
The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust (2003:207). Note that there is only 1 form each for "we (exclusive)," "you (plural)" and "they."
The following Favorlang personal pronouns are from Li (2003:8). All of them are free forms. All genitive pronouns end with -a.
The Kavalan personal pronouns below are from Li (2006:30).
The Basay personal pronouns below are from Li (1999:639).
The tables of Takivatan Bunun personal pronouns below are sourced from De Busser (2009:441).
Iskubun Bunun personal pronouns are somewhat different (De Busser 2009:454).
Ilokano
Ilokano
personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive
, ergative
, and oblique
. They also distinguish three numbers: singular
, dual
and plural
.
Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
Tagalog
Like nouns, Tagalog
personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
Cebuano
Like nouns, Cebuano
personal pronouns are categorized by case.
* The two sets of tag-iya case function similarly except that the primary tag-iya would need the unifying linker nga and the modifier tag-iya cannot be used as complementary adjective.
** The final syllable of a primary tag-iya pronoun is mostly dropped.
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
* When the object is a second person pronoun, use ta instead of ko.
Malay
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.
Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".
Javanese
The informal pronouns aku and kowe, are inherited from Austronesian.
Javanese lacks of personal pronouns. For first person plural, Javanese use awake dhewe that means "the body itself" (cf. Malay : badannya sendiri) or just dhewe, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For third person singular, Javanese use dheweke that means "itself" (cf. Malay : dirinya), from dhewe (self, alone) + -k-(as euphony) + -(n)e (3rd person possessive enclitic), or wonge (cf. Malay : orangnya) that means "the person", from wong (person)+ -(n)e (3rd person possessive enclitic, that is also used for demonstrative).
The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabeh/ sedaya/ sedanten that all means "all" after the singular form.
Possessive pronouns
Aku, kowe, and dheweke have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns : griyane kula, omahe awake dhewe, dalemipun panjenengan "my house (formal), our house (informal), your house (more formal)".
s which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb
, light colour) or postposed (after the verb, dark colour). The first are the normal subjective pronouns, the latter the stressed subjective pronouns, which sometimes implies reflexive pronoun
s, or with kia te in front the objective pronouns. (There are no possessions involved in the cardinal pronouns and therefore no subjective and objective forms to be considered).
, and distinguishes singular
, dual
, and plural
. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.
The a-class possessive pronouns refer to alienable possession, as with boats, children, clothing, and spouses. The o-class possessive pronouns refer to inalienable (incapable of being begun or ended) possession, as with parents and body parts.
Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. All known languages contain personal pronouns.- English personal pronouns :English in common use today has seven personal pronouns:*first-person singular...
pronoun
Pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun , such as, in English, the words it and he...
systems of various Austronesian languages
Austronesian languages
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...
.
Proto-languagesProto-Austronesian languageThe Proto-Austronesian language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. However, Ross notes that what may be the most divergent languages, Tsou, Rukai, and Puyuma, are not addressed by the reconstructions, which therefore cannot...
The Proto-AustronesianProto-Austronesian language
The Proto-Austronesian language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. However, Ross notes that what may be the most divergent languages, Tsou, Rukai, and Puyuma, are not addressed by the reconstructions, which therefore cannot...
and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronoun
Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. All known languages contain personal pronouns.- English personal pronouns :English in common use today has seven personal pronouns:*first-person singular...
s below were reconstructed by Robert Blust
Robert Blust
Robert A. Blust is a prominent linguist in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. Blust specializes in the Austronesian languages and has made major contributions to the field of Austronesian linguistics....
.
| Type of Pronoun | English | Proto-Austronesian | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | "I" | *i-aku | *i-aku |
| 2s. | "you" | *i-(ka)Su | *i-kahu |
| 3s. | "he/she/it" | *si-ia | *si-ia |
| 1p. (inclusive) | "we (and you)" | *i-(k)ita | *i-(k)ita |
| 1p. (exclusive) | "we (but not you)" | *i-(k)ami | *i-(k)ami |
| 2p. | "you all" | *i-kamu | *i-kamu, ihu |
| 3p. | "they" | *si-ida | *si-ida |
In 2006, Malcolm Ross
Malcolm Ross
Malcolm David Ross is a linguist and professor at the Australian National University. He has published work on Austronesian and Papuan languages, historical linguistics, and language contact.-External links:**...
also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.
- Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)
- Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)
- Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)
- Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)
- Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)
- Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)
- Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.
| Free | Free polite | Genitive 1 | Genitive 2 | Genitive 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | *[i-]aku | - | *=ku | *maku | *n-aku |
| 2s. | *[i-]Su | *[i-]ka-Su | *=Su | *miSu | *ni-Su |
| 3s. | *s(i)-ia | - | (*=ia) | - | *n(i)-ia |
| 1p. (excl.) | *i-ami | *[i-]k-ami | *=mi | *mami | *n(i)-ami |
| 1p. (incl.) | *([i])ita | *[i-]k-ita | *=ta | *mita | *n-ita |
| 2p. | *i-amu | *[i-]k-amu | *=mu | *mamu | *n(i)-amu |
| 3p. | *si-da | - | (*=da) | - | *ni-da |
Rukai
Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun (1997). Paul Jen-kuei Li's classification of Rukai dialects is given for reference.- Rukai
- Mantauran (萬山 Wanshan) - 250-300 speakers
- (Main branch)
- Maga-Tona
- Maga (馬加 Majia)
- Tona (多納 Duona)
- Budai-Tanan (Rukai Proper)
- Budai (霧台 Wutai)
- Tanan (大南 Danan)
- Maga-Tona
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | iɭaə | -ɭao, nao- | -i-a-ə | -li |
| 2s. | imiaʔə | -moʔo | i-miaʔ-ə | -ʔo |
| 3s. (vis.) | ana | - | -i-n-ə | -(n)i |
| 3s. (not vis.) | ðona | - | -i-ð-ə | -ða |
| 1p. (incl.) | imitə, ita | -mita, -ta | -i-mit-ə | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | inamə | -nai | -i-nam-ə | -nai |
| 2p. | inomə | -nomi | -i-nom-ə | -nomi |
| 3p. (vis.) | ana-lo | - | -i-l-i-n-ə | -l-i-ni |
| 3p. (not vis.) | ðona-lo | - | -i-l-i-ð-ə | -l-i-ða |
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | kunaku | -(n)aku, naw- | nakuanə | -li |
| 2s. | kusu | -su | musuanə | -su |
| 3s. (vis.) | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| 1p. (incl.) | kuta | -ta | mitaanə | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | kunai | -nai | naianə | -nai |
| 2p. | kunumi | -numi, -nu | numianə | -numi |
| 3p. (vis.) | kuini | - | inianə | -ini |
| 3p. (not vis.) | kuiɖa | - | - | - |
| Type of Pronoun |
Topic | Nominative | Oblique | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | i kɨkɨ | ku-, kɨkɨ | ŋkua | -li |
| 2s. | i musu | su-, musu | sua | -su |
| 3s. (vis.) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
| 1p. (incl.) | i miti | ta-, miti | mitia | -ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | i knamɨ | namɨ-, knamɨ | nmaa | -namɨ |
| 2p. | i mumu | mu-, mumu | mua | -mu |
| 3p. (vis.) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
| 3p. (not vis.) | i kiɖi | kiɖi | ɖia | -ɖa |
Tsouic
The personal pronouns below are from the Tfuya dialect of Tsou, and are sourced from Zeitoun (2005:265). Note that third-person pronouns are distinguished between those that are visible (abbreviated vis. below) or non-visible.| Type of Pronoun |
Free (neutral) |
Bound (nominative) |
Bound (genitive) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | a'o | -'o/-'u | -'o/-'u |
| 2s. | suu | -su/-ko | -su/-ko |
| 3s. (vis.) | taini | -ta | -taini |
| 3s. (not vis.) | ic'o | - | -si |
| 1p. (incl.) | a'ati | -to | -to |
| 1p. (excl.) | a'ami | -mza | -mza |
| 2p. | muu | -mu | -mu |
| 3p. (vis.) | hin'i | -hin'i | -hin'i |
| 3p. (not vis.) | hee | - | -he |
Northwestern Formosan
The Pazeh personal pronouns below are from Li (2000). (Note: vis. = visible, prox. = proximal)| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | aku | naki | yakuan, yakunan |
| 2s. | isiw | siw | nisiw | isiwan |
| 2s. (prox.) | imini | mini | nimini | iminiyan |
| 3s. (vis.) | imisiw | misiw | nimisiw | misiwan |
| 3s. (not vis.) | isia | sia | nisia | isiaan |
| 1p. (incl.) | ita | ta | nita (ta-) | itaan |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | ami | nyam(i) | yamian, yaminan |
| 2p. | imu | mu | nimu | imuan |
| 2p. (prox.) | yamini | amini | naamini | yaminiyan |
| 3p. (vis.) | yamisiw | amisiw | naamisiw | yamisiwan |
| 3p. (not vis.) | yasia | asia | naasia | yasiaan |
Saisiyat has an elaborate pronominal system (Hsieh & Huang 2006:93).
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | Dative | Possessive | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yako, yao | yakin, iyakin | ma'an | 'iniman | 'amana'a | kanman |
| 2s. | So'o | 'iso'on | niSo | 'iniSo | 'anso'o'a | kanSo |
| 3s. | sia | hisia | nisia | inisia | 'ansiaa | kansia |
| 1p. (incl.) | 'ita | 'inimita | mita' | 'inimita' | 'anmita'a | kan'ita |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | 'iniya'om | niya'om | 'iniya'om | 'anya'oma | kanyami |
| 2p. | moyo | 'inimon | nimon | 'inimon | 'anmoyoa | kanmoyo |
| 3p. | lasia | hilasia | nasia | 'inilasia | 'anlasiaa | kanlasia |
The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust (2003:207). Note that there is only 1 form each for "we (exclusive)," "you (plural)" and "they."
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Accusative | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | yakin | nak |
| 2s. | ihu | ihu-n | m-ihu |
| 3s. | cicu | cicu-n | cicu |
| 1p. (incl.) | ita | ita-n | m-ita |
| 1p. (excl.) | yamin | yamin | yamin |
| 2p. | maniun | maniun | maniun |
| 3p. | caycuy | caycuy | caycuy |
The following Favorlang personal pronouns are from Li (2003:8). All of them are free forms. All genitive pronouns end with -a.
| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Genitive | Nominative/Accusative |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | ka-ina | na-a | ina |
| 2s. | ijonoë | joa, oa | ijo |
| 3s. | icho | choa | icho |
| 1p. (incl.) | torro | torroa | - |
| 1p. (excl.) | namono | namoa | namo |
| 2p. | imonoë | imoa | imo |
| 3p. | aicho-es dechonoë | choa | decho |
Atayalic
The Mayrinax and Wulai Atayal personal pronouns below are sourced from Huang (1995). In both varieties, the nominative and genitive forms are bound while the neutral and locative ones are free (unbound).| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Locative | Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | sakuʔ, kuʔ | makuʔ, mu, kuʔ | knan | kuzing, kun |
| 2s. | suʔ | suʔ | sunan | isuʔ |
| 3s. | - | nyaʔ | hiyan | hiyaʔ |
| 1p. (incl.) | taʔ | taʔ | itan | itaʔ |
| 1p. (excl.) | sami | myan | sminan | sami |
| 2p. | simu | mamu | smunan | simu |
| 3p. | - | nhaʔ | hgan | hgaʔ |
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | cu, ciʔ | mu, miʔ | kuing |
| 2s. | suʔ, siʔ | suʔ | isuʔ |
| 3s. | - | niaʔ | hiyaʔ |
| 1p. (incl.) | taʔ, tiʔ | taʔ, tiʔ | itaʔ |
| 1p. (excl.) | cami | niam | cami |
| 2p. | cimu | mamu | cimu |
| 3p. | - | nhaʔ | nhaʔ |
| Type of Pronoun |
Direct | Oblique | Independent possessive |
Subject | Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | kenan | (ne-)naku | =ku | =mu |
| 2s. | isu | sunan | (ne-)nisu | =su | =su |
| 3s. | hiya | hiyaan | ne-hiya | - | =na |
| 1p. (incl.) | 'ita | tenan | (ne-)nita | =ta | =ta |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | menani | (ne-)nami | =nami | =nami |
| 2p. | yamu | munan | (ne-)namu | =namu | =namu |
| 3p. | dehiya | dehiyaan | ne-dehiya | - | =deha |
East Formosan
The Siraya personal pronouns below are from Adelaar (1997).| Type of Pronoun |
Free | Actor or Possessive |
Topic | Oblique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | ĭau | -(m)au | -koh | ĭau-an |
| 2s. | ĭmhu | -(m)uhu, -(m)oho | -kow | ĭmhu-an |
| 3s. | teni | tĭn | teni | tĭni-än (tĭni-an) |
| 1p. (incl.) | ĭmĭtta | -(m)ĭtta, -(m)eta | -kĭtta | ĭmittä-n |
| 1p. (excl.) | ĭmi-an | -(m)ian, -(m)iän | -kame | mian-än (mian-an) |
| 2p. | ĭmumi | -(m)umi | (-)kamu | ĭmumi-än (ĭmumi-an) |
| 3p. | ta neini | nein | neini | neini-än (neini-an) |
The Kavalan personal pronouns below are from Li (2006:30).
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Oblique | Locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | aiku, =iku | zaku, -ku | timaiku | tamaikuan |
| 2s. | aisu, =isu | zasu, -su | timaisu | tamaisuan |
| 3s. | aizipna tiyau | zana, -na | timaizipna tiyau | tamaizipan tiyauan |
| 1p. (incl.) | aita, =ita | zata, -ta, -kita | timaita | tamaitan |
| 1p. (excl.) | aimi, =imi | zanyaq, -nyaq | timaimi | tamaimian |
| 2p. | aimu, =imu | zanumi, -numi | timaimu | tamaimuan |
| 3p. | qaniyau | zana, -na | qaniyau | taqaniyauan |
The Basay personal pronouns below are from Li (1999:639).
| Type of Pronoun |
Neutral | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | yaku | kaku, -ku | maku-, -aku; naku, -ak | yakuan, kuan, kuanan |
| 2s. | isu | kisu, -su | misu, -isu; nisu, -su ~ -is | isuan, suan, isuanan, suanan |
| 3s. | - | -ia | - | - |
| 1p. (incl.) | mita | kita, -ita | mita, -ita; nita, -ta | ...., ...., tianan |
| 1p. (excl.) | yami | -mi | yami, -ami; nami, -am | yamian, mian, mianan |
| 2p. | imu | kimu, -mu | -imu; nimu, -im | imuan, ...., imuanan |
| 3p. | - | -ia | - | - |
Bunun
Takivatan Bunun personal pronoun roots are (De Busser 2009:453):- 1s: -ak-
- 2s: -su-
- 3s: -is-
- 1p (incl.): -at-
- 1p (excl.): -ðam-
- 2p: -(a)mu-
- 3p: -in-
The tables of Takivatan Bunun personal pronouns below are sourced from De Busser (2009:441).
| Type of Pronoun |
Root | Foc. Agent (bound) |
Non-Foc. Agent (bound) |
Neutral | Foc. Agent | Locative | Possessive |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | -ak- | -(ʔ)ak | -(ʔ)uk | ðaku, nak | sak, saikin | ðakuʔan | inak, ainak, nak |
| 2s. | -su- | -(ʔ)as | - | suʔu, su | - | suʔuʔan | isu, su |
| 1p. (incl.) | -at- | - | - | mita | ʔata, inʔata | mitaʔan | imita |
| 1p. (excl.) | -ðam- | -(ʔ)am | - | ðami, nam | ðamu, sam | ðamiʔan | inam, nam |
| 2p. | -(a)mu- | -(ʔ)am | - | muʔu, mu | amu | muʔuʔan | imu, mu |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| [Root] | -is- | -in- |
| Proximal | isti | inti |
| Medial | istun | intun |
| Distal | ista | inta |
Iskubun Bunun personal pronouns are somewhat different (De Busser 2009:454).
| Type of Pronoun |
Agent | Undergoer | Possessive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | saikin, -ik | ðaku, -ku | inak, nak |
| 2s. | kasu, -as | su | isu, su |
| 3s. | saia | saiʤa | isaiʤa, saiʤa |
| 1p. (incl.) | kata, -ta | mita | imita |
| 1p. (excl.) | kaimin, -im | ðami | inam |
| 2p. | kamu, -am | mu | imu |
| 3p. | naia | inaiʤa | naiʤa |
Paiwan
The Kuɬaɬau Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982:14).| Type of Pronoun |
Equational | Genitive | Non-Eq., Non-Gen. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | -aken, ti-aken | ku-, ni-aken | tjanu-aken |
| 2s. | -sun, ti-sun | su-, ni-sun | tjanu-sun |
| 3s. | ti-madju | ni-madju | tjai-madju |
| 1p. (incl.) | -itjen, ti-tjen | tja-, ni-tjen | tjanu-itjen |
| 1p. (excl.) | -amen, ti-amen | nia-, ni-amen | tjanu-amen |
| 2p. | -mun, t-mun | nu-, ni-mun | tjanu-mun |
| 3p. | ti-a-madju | ni-a-madju | tjai-a-madju |
Puyuma
The Nanwang Puyuma personal pronouns below are from Teng (2008:61-64).| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Oblique: Direct |
Oblique: Indirect |
Oblique: Non-Subject |
Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
| 2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
| 3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
| 1p. (incl.) | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
| 1p. (excl.) | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
| 2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
| 3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | - |
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative (Subject) |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) |
Genitive |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
| 2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
| 3s. | - | tu= | tu= |
| 1p. (incl.) | =ta | ta= | ta= |
| 1p. (excl.) | =mi | niam= | mi= |
| 2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
| 3p. | - | tu= | tu= |
IlokanoIlokano languageIlokano or Ilocano is the third most-spoken language of the Republic of the Philippines....
IlokanoIlokano language
Ilokano or Ilocano is the third most-spoken language of the Republic of the Philippines....
personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive
Absolutive case
The absolutive case is the unmarked grammatical case of a core argument of a verb which is used as the citation form of a noun.-In ergative languages:...
, ergative
Ergative case
The ergative case is the grammatical case that identifies the subject of a transitive verb in ergative-absolutive languages.-Characteristics:...
, and oblique
Oblique case
An oblique case in linguistics is a noun case of synthetic languages that is used generally when a noun is the object of a verb or a preposition...
. They also distinguish three numbers: singular
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
, dual
Dual
Dual may refer to:* Dual , a notion of paired concepts that mirror one another** Dual , a formalization of mathematical duality** . . ...
and plural
Plural
In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one...
.
Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
| Absolutive | Ergative | Oblique | ||
| Disjunctive | Enclitic (-ak) | Enclitic (-ko) | Disjunctive | |
| 1st person singular | siák | -ak | -k(o) | kaniák |
| 1st person dual | datá, sitá | -ta | -ta | kadatá |
| 2nd person singular | siká | -ka | -m(o) | kenká |
| 3rd person singular | isú(na) | -Ø | -na | kenkuána |
| 1st person plural inclusive | datayó, sitayó | -tayó | -tayó | kadatayó |
| 1st person plural exclusive | dakamí, sikamí | -kamí | -mi | kadakamí |
| 2nd person plural | dakayó, sikayó | -kayó | -yo | kadakayó |
| 3rd person plural | isúda | -da | -da | kadakuáda |
TagalogTagalog languageTagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a third of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by most of the rest. It is the first language of the Philippine region IV and of Metro Manila...
Like nouns, TagalogTagalog language
Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a third of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by most of the rest. It is the first language of the Philippine region IV and of Metro Manila...
personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
| Direct (ang) | Indirect (ng) | Oblique (sa) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ako | ko | akin |
| 1st person dual | kita/kata | nita/nata | kanitá/kanata (ata) |
| 1st person plural inclusive | tayo | natin | atin |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kami | namin | amin |
| 2nd person singular | ikáw (ka) | mo | iyó |
| 2nd person plural | kayo | ninyo | inyo |
| 3rd person singular | siya | niya | kaniya |
| 3rd person plural | silá | nilá | kanilá |
CebuanoCebuano languageCebuano, referred to by most of its speakers as Bisaya , is an Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines by about 20 million people mostly in the Central Visayas. It is the most widely spoken of the languages within the so-named Bisayan subgroup and is closely related to other Filipino...
Like nouns, CebuanoCebuano language
Cebuano, referred to by most of its speakers as Bisaya , is an Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines by about 20 million people mostly in the Central Visayas. It is the most widely spoken of the languages within the so-named Bisayan subgroup and is closely related to other Filipino...
personal pronouns are categorized by case.
| Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ako | akoa | nako | kanako |
| 2nd person singular | ikaw | imoha | nimo | kanimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya / sya | iyaha /iya | niya | kaniya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | kita | atoa / ato | nato | kanato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kami | amoa / amo | namo | kanamo |
| 2nd person plural | kamo | inyoha | ninyo | kaninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ilaha | nila | kanila |
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
| Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | ko | ako | ko | nako |
| 2nd person singular | ka | imo | mo | nimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya | iya | niya | niya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | ta | ato | nato | nato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | mi | amo | namo | namo |
| 2nd person plural | kamo | inyo | ninyo | ninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ila | nila | nila |
MalayMalay languageMalay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.| Person | Malay | English |
|---|---|---|
| First person | saya (standard, polite), aku (informal, familiar) |
I, me |
| kami | we, us: they and me, s/he and me | |
| kita | we, us: you and me, you and us | |
| Second person | anda (polite, formal), kamu (familiar, informal) |
you, thou, thee |
| anda sekalian (formal), kalian (informal) |
you, y'all | |
| Third person | ia ~ dia, dia orang |
he, she, him, her |
| ia ~ dia, mereka, dia orang |
they, them |
Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|---|---|
| aku | -ku | mejaku (my table) |
| kamu | -mu | mejamu (your table) |
| engkau | -kau | mejakau (your table) |
| ia | -nya | mejanya (his, her, their table) |
JavaneseJavanese languageJavanese language is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. In addition, there are also some pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java...
The informal pronouns aku and kowe, are inherited from Austronesian.| Person | Malay | English |
|---|---|---|
| First person | aku (standard, informal), kula (formal), dalem/ kawula (more formal/ humble) |
I, me |
| dhewe/ awake dhewe (informal), kita (formal) |
we, us: they and me, s/he and me and also you and me, you and us | |
| Second person | kowe (informal), sampeyan (formal), panjenengan (more formal) |
you, thou, thee |
| kowe kabeh (informal), sampeyan sedaya (formal), panjenengan sedanten (more formal) |
you, you all | |
| Third person | dheweke/ wonge (informal), piyantune, panjenengane (formal), panjenengipun (more formal) |
he, she, him, her |
| dheweke kabeh (informal, but rarely), wong-wong iku (informal) panjenenganipun sedanten, tiyang-tiyang/ piyantun-piyantun puniku (more formal) |
they, them |
Javanese lacks of personal pronouns. For first person plural, Javanese use awake dhewe that means "the body itself" (cf. Malay : badannya sendiri) or just dhewe, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For third person singular, Javanese use dheweke that means "itself" (cf. Malay : dirinya), from dhewe (self, alone) + -k-(as euphony) + -(n)e (3rd person possessive enclitic), or wonge (cf. Malay : orangnya) that means "the person", from wong (person)+ -(n)e (3rd person possessive enclitic, that is also used for demonstrative).
The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabeh/ sedaya/ sedanten that all means "all" after the singular form.
Possessive pronouns
Aku, kowe, and dheweke have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns : griyane kula, omahe awake dhewe, dalemipun panjenengan "my house (formal), our house (informal), your house (more formal)".
| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|---|---|
| aku | -ku / -(n)e kula / -ipun dalem | omahku/ griyane kula/ dalemipun dalem (my house) |
| kowe | -mu/ -(n)e sampeyan/ -ipun panjenengan | omahmu/ griyane sampeyan/ dalemipun panjenengan (your house) |
| dheweke | -(n)e/ -ipun | omahe/ griyane/ dalemipun (his, her, their house) |
Tongan
The Tongan cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronounPersonal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common nouns. All known languages contain personal pronouns.- English personal pronouns :English in common use today has seven personal pronouns:*first-person singular...
s which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb
Verb
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action , or a state of being . In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive...
, light colour) or postposed (after the verb, dark colour). The first are the normal subjective pronouns, the latter the stressed subjective pronouns, which sometimes implies reflexive pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun, adjective, adverb or pronoun to which it refers within the same clause. In generative grammar, a reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by its antecedent...
s, or with kia te in front the objective pronouns. (There are no possessions involved in the cardinal pronouns and therefore no subjective and objective forms to be considered).
| Position | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive (I, we, us) |
preposed | u, ou, ku | ma | mau |
| postposed | au | kimaua | kimautolu | ||
| inclusive (one, we, us) |
preposed | te | ta | tau | |
| postposed | kita | kitaua | kitautolu | ||
| 2nd person | preposed | ke | mo | mou | |
| postposed | koe | kimoua | kimoutolu | ||
| 3rd person | preposed | ne | na | nau | |
| postposed | ia | kinaua | kinautolu | ||
Samoan
Like many Austronesian languages, Samoan has separate words for inclusive and exclusive weClusivity
In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"...
, and distinguishes singular
Grammatical number
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
, dual
Dual (grammatical number)
Dual is a grammatical number that some languages use in addition to singular and plural. When a noun or pronoun appears in dual form, it is interpreted as referring to precisely two of the entities identified by the noun or pronoun...
, and plural
Plural
In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one...
. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.
| singular | dual | plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First person Grammatical person Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns... exclusive |
a‘u , ‘ou | mā‘ua, mā | mātou |
| First person inclusive | tā | tā‘ua, tā | tātou |
| Second person | ‘oe, ‘e | ‘oulua | ‘outou, tou |
| Third person | ia / na | lā‘ua | lātou |
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.
Hawaiian
| Singular (1) | Dual Dual (grammatical number) Dual is a grammatical number that some languages use in addition to singular and plural. When a noun or pronoun appears in dual form, it is interpreted as referring to precisely two of the entities identified by the noun or pronoun... (2) | Plural Plural In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one... (3+) |
||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... | 1st excl. Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | ||
| Case | Nominative Nominative case The nominative case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or predicate adjective, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments... |
au | oe | ia | kāua | māua | olua | lāua | kākou | mākou | oukou | lākou |
| Genitive Genitive case In grammar, genitive is the grammatical case that marks a noun as modifying another noun... | a-class | kau | kāu | kāna | kā kāua | kā māua | kā olua | kā lāua | kā kākou | kā mākou | kā oukou | kā lākou |
| o-class | kou | kou | kōna | kō kāua | kō māua | kō olua | kō lāua | kō kākou | kō mākou | kō oukou | kō lākou | |
| affectionate | kuu | kō | Only used in 1st and 2nd person singular. | |||||||||
| Accusative Accusative case The accusative case of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of prepositions... , Dative Dative case The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given, as in "George gave Jamie a drink".... |
iau | iā oe | iā ia | iā kāua | iā māua | iā olua | iā lāua | iā kākou | iā mākou | iā oukou | iā lākou | |
The a-class possessive pronouns refer to alienable possession, as with boats, children, clothing, and spouses. The o-class possessive pronouns refer to inalienable (incapable of being begun or ended) possession, as with parents and body parts.
Further reading
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 1997. "A Syntactic Typology of Formosan Languages — Case Markers on Nouns and Pronouns." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2004. Selected Papers on Formosan Languages. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.