Pongamia pinnata
Encyclopedia
Milletia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea
family, Fabaceae
, native in tropical and temperate Asia including parts of India, China, Japan, Malesia
, Australia and Pacific islands. It is often known by the synonym Pongamia
pinnata as it was moved to the genus Millettia
only recently. Common names include Indian Beech, Pongam, Karanj (Hindi
), ಹೊಂಗೆ Honge (Kannada
), புங்கை Pungai (Tamil
), కానుగ Kānuga (Telugu
), नक्तमाल Naktamāla (Sanskrit
).
for short periods. The leaves are a soft, shiny burgundy in early summer and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses. Flowering starts in general after 3–4 years. Cropping of pods and single almond
sized seeds can occur by 4–6 years. Small clusters of white, purple, and pink flower
s blossom on their branches throughout the year, maturing into brown seed
pods.
Naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia
to north and north-eastern Australia to some Pacific islands; It has been propagated and distributed further around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea-level to 1200m, although in the Himalayan
foothills it is not found above 600m. Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0 °C (32 °F) and up to about 50 °C (120 °F) and annual rainfall of 500–2,500 mm (20–100 in), the tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water.
The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot
make it drought-tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation
, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen
(N2) from the air is converted into ammonium
(NH4+, a form of nitrogen available to the plant).
Specifically M. pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a haploid chromosome
number of 11. Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium Bradyrhizobium
. The oil has a high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents including karanjin
and karanjachromene
.
M. pinnata is well-adapted to arid
zones and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping purposes as a windbreak
or for shade due to the large canopy and showy fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. The bark can be used to make twine or rope and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained but splits easily when sawn thus relegating it to firewood
, posts, and tool handles.
Although all parts of the plant are toxic and will induce nausea and vomiting if eaten, the fruits and sprouts, along with the seeds, are used in many traditional remedies. Juices from the plant, as well as the oil, are antiseptic
and resistant to pests. In addition M. pinnata has the rare property of producing seeds of 25–40% lipid
content of which nearly half is oleic acid
. Oil made from the seeds, known as honge oil
, is an important asset of this tree and has been used as lamp oil
, in soap
making, and as a lubricant
for thousands of years.
Long used as shade tree, M. pinnata is heavily self-seeding and can spread lateral roots up to 9m over its lifetime. If not managed carefully it can quickly become a weed leading some, including Miami-Dade County, to label the tree as a invasive species
. However this dense network of lateral roots makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes.
The seed oil has been found to be useful in diesel generators and, along with Jatropha
and Castor
, it is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel
. It is especially attractive because it grows naturally through much of arid India, having very deep roots to reach water, and is one of the few crops well-suited to commercialization by India's large population of rural poor. Several unelectrified villages have recently used honge oil
, simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting.
In 1997 the Indian Institute of Science
started researching and promoting the use of Pongamia oil as an SVO for stationary generators for electricity and irrigation pumps in the rural areas of Karnataka
and Andhra. The program SuTRA
successfully demonstrated the sustainability of such oil use in several villages all over India. Several stalwarts such as Prof. Satish Dhawan have supported the use of these oils in diesel engines, in the past.
In 2003 the Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy
as part of its Biofuel Rural Development Initiative started a campaign of education and public awareness to rural farmers about M. pinnata in two Indian states. One of the Himalayan Institute's partners developed a consistently high yield scion
that reduced the time it takes to mature from 10 years to as little as three. To help the farmers in the transition from traditional crops to M. pinnata the Indian government has contributed over $30 million in low-interest loans and donated 4.5 million kg (5,000 short ton
s) of rice to sustain impoverished drought-stricken farmers until the trees begin to produce income. Since the project began in 2003 over 20 million trees have been planted and 45,000 farmers are now involved.
In 2006 the Himalayan Institute began looking at locations in Africa to transplant M. pinnata into. Initially they began in Uganda
but due to the lack of infrastructure
and growing desertification
the project has been growing very slowly. They have also begun a project in the Kumbo
region of Cameroon
where conditions are better. There has been some suggestions that M. pinnata could be grown all the way across the continent as a way to prevent the encroachment of the Sahara
.
The University of Queensland
node of the Australian Research Council Center for Excellence in Legume Research, under the directorship of Professor Peter Gresshoff, in conjunction with Pacific Renewable Energy
are currently working on M. pinnata for commercial use for the production of biofuel. Projects are currently focused on understanding aspects of M. pinnata including root biology, nodulation, nitrogen fixation, domestication genes, grafting, salinity tolerance, and the genetics of the oil production pathways. Emphasis is given to analyzing carbon sequestration (in relation to carbon credits) and nitrogen gain.
Research has also been put into using the material leftover from the oil extraction as a feed supplement for cattle, sheep and poultry as this byproduct contains up to 30% protein. Other studies have shown some potential for biocidal
activity against V. cholerae
and E. coli
, as well an anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (reduction in sensitivity to painful stimuli) and antipyretic (reduction in fever) properties. There is also research indicating that M. pinnata can be used as a natural insecticide
.
Pea
A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum. Each pod contains several peas. Peapods are botanically a fruit, since they contain seeds developed from the ovary of a flower. However, peas are considered to be a vegetable in cooking...
family, Fabaceae
Fabaceae
The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, is a large and economically important family of flowering plants. The group is the third largest land plant family, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species...
, native in tropical and temperate Asia including parts of India, China, Japan, Malesia
Malesia
Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the boundaries of the Indomalaya ecozone and Australasia ecozone, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom.-Floristic province:...
, Australia and Pacific islands. It is often known by the synonym Pongamia
Pongamia
Pongamia is a genus of legume in the Fabaceae family.It contains the following species:* Pongamia velutina-Species formely in the genus:Pongamia pinnata or Pongamia glabra are synonyms for Millettia pinnata...
pinnata as it was moved to the genus Millettia
Millettia
Millettia is a genus of legume in the Fabaceae family.It consists of about 150 species, which are distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.-Species:Species include:* Millettia aurea*Millettia brandisiana...
only recently. Common names include Indian Beech, Pongam, Karanj (Hindi
Hindi
Standard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
), ಹೊಂಗೆ Honge (Kannada
Kannada language
Kannada or , is a language spoken in India predominantly in the state of Karnataka. Kannada, whose native speakers are called Kannadigas and number roughly 50 million, is one of the 30 most spoken languages in the world...
), புங்கை Pungai (Tamil
Tamil language
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in the Indian union territory of Pondicherry. Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore...
), కానుగ Kānuga (Telugu
Telugu language
Telugu is a Central Dravidian language primarily spoken in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, where it is an official language. It is also spoken in the neighbouring states of Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu...
), नक्तमाल Naktamāla (Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
).
Description
A legume tree that grows to about 15–25 meters (15–80 ft) in height with a large canopy which spreads equally wide. It may be deciduousDeciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
for short periods. The leaves are a soft, shiny burgundy in early summer and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses. Flowering starts in general after 3–4 years. Cropping of pods and single almond
Almond
The almond , is a species of tree native to the Middle East and South Asia. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree...
sized seeds can occur by 4–6 years. Small clusters of white, purple, and pink flower
Flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s blossom on their branches throughout the year, maturing into brown seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
pods.
Naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia
Malesia
Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the boundaries of the Indomalaya ecozone and Australasia ecozone, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Paleotropical Kingdom.-Floristic province:...
to north and north-eastern Australia to some Pacific islands; It has been propagated and distributed further around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea-level to 1200m, although in the Himalayan
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
foothills it is not found above 600m. Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0 °C (32 °F) and up to about 50 °C (120 °F) and annual rainfall of 500–2,500 mm (20–100 in), the tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water.
The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot
Taproot
A taproot is an enlarged, somewhat straight to tapering plant root that grows vertically downward. It forms a center from which other roots sprout laterally.Plants with taproots are difficult to transplant...
make it drought-tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the natural process, either biological or abiotic, by which nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia . This process is essential for life because fixed nitrogen is required to biosynthesize the basic building blocks of life, e.g., nucleotides for DNA and RNA and...
, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
(N2) from the air is converted into ammonium
Ammonium
The ammonium cation is a positively charged polyatomic cation with the chemical formula NH. It is formed by the protonation of ammonia...
(NH4+, a form of nitrogen available to the plant).
Specifically M. pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a haploid chromosome
Chromosome
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
number of 11. Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium Bradyrhizobium
Bradyrhizobium
Bradyrhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria, many of which fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation is an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen they must use nitrogen compounds such as nitrates....
. The oil has a high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents including karanjin
Karanjin
Karanjin, a furanoflavonol, a type of flavonoid. It is obtained from the seeds of the karanja tree , a tree growing wild in south India. Karanjin is an acaricide and insecticide. Acaricide means a product that is used to kill mites...
and karanjachromene
Karanjachromene
Karanjachromene is a pyranoflavonol, a type of flavonol. It is a fluorescent pyranoflavonoid isolated from the seed oil of Pongamia pinnata....
.
Uses
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
zones and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping purposes as a windbreak
Windbreak
A windbreak or shelterbelt is a plantation usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion. They are commonly planted around the edges of fields on farms. If designed properly, windbreaks around a...
or for shade due to the large canopy and showy fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. The bark can be used to make twine or rope and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained but splits easily when sawn thus relegating it to firewood
Firewood
Firewood is any wood-like material that is gathered and used for fuel. Generally, firewood is not highly processed and is in some sort of recognizable log or branch form....
, posts, and tool handles.
Although all parts of the plant are toxic and will induce nausea and vomiting if eaten, the fruits and sprouts, along with the seeds, are used in many traditional remedies. Juices from the plant, as well as the oil, are antiseptic
Antiseptic
Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction...
and resistant to pests. In addition M. pinnata has the rare property of producing seeds of 25–40% lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
content of which nearly half is oleic acid
Oleic acid
Oleic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable fats. It has the formula CH37CH=CH7COOH. It is an odorless, colourless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid...
. Oil made from the seeds, known as honge oil
Honge oil
Honge oil is derived from the Pongamia pinnata, which is native to India. The word honge comes from the Kannada word for this plant.Honge oil is composed of the following fatty acids....
, is an important asset of this tree and has been used as lamp oil
Oil lamp
An oil lamp is an object used to produce light continuously for a period of time using an oil-based fuel source. The use of oil lamps began thousands of years ago and is continued to this day....
, in soap
Soap
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid.IUPAC. "" Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. . Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford . XML on-line corrected version: created by M. Nic, J. Jirat, B. Kosata; updates compiled by A. Jenkins. ISBN...
making, and as a lubricant
Lubricant
A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction between moving surfaces. It may also have the function of transporting foreign particles and of distributing heat...
for thousands of years.
Long used as shade tree, M. pinnata is heavily self-seeding and can spread lateral roots up to 9m over its lifetime. If not managed carefully it can quickly become a weed leading some, including Miami-Dade County, to label the tree as a invasive species
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
. However this dense network of lateral roots makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes.
Research efforts
Jatropha
Jatropha is a genus of approximately 175 succulent plants, shrubs and trees , from the family Euphorbiaceae. The name is derived from the Greek words ἰατρός , meaning "physician," and τροφή , meaning "nutrition," hence the common name physic nut. Mature plants produce separate male and female...
and Castor
Castor
Castor derives from the , meaning "beaver", or "he who excels". It originally referred to Castor, one of the Dioscuri/Gemini twins of Graeco-Roman mythology.Castor or CASTOR may also refer to:-Science and technology:...
, it is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
. It is especially attractive because it grows naturally through much of arid India, having very deep roots to reach water, and is one of the few crops well-suited to commercialization by India's large population of rural poor. Several unelectrified villages have recently used honge oil
Honge oil
Honge oil is derived from the Pongamia pinnata, which is native to India. The word honge comes from the Kannada word for this plant.Honge oil is composed of the following fatty acids....
, simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting.
In 1997 the Indian Institute of Science
Indian Institute of Science
Indian Institute of Science is a research institution of higher learning located in Bangalore, India. It was established in 1909.-History:After a chance meeting between Jamsetji N...
started researching and promoting the use of Pongamia oil as an SVO for stationary generators for electricity and irrigation pumps in the rural areas of Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
and Andhra. The program SuTRA
Sutra
Sūtra is an aphorism or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. Literally it means a thread or line that holds things together and is derived from the verbal root siv-, meaning to sew , as does the medical term...
successfully demonstrated the sustainability of such oil use in several villages all over India. Several stalwarts such as Prof. Satish Dhawan have supported the use of these oils in diesel engines, in the past.
In 2003 the Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy
Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy
The Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy was founded by Swami Rama of the Himalayas in 1971. The headquarters and main campus is located on in the Pocono Mountains of northeastern Pennsylvania, with branches distributed around the globe including Cameroon, India, Great Britain,...
as part of its Biofuel Rural Development Initiative started a campaign of education and public awareness to rural farmers about M. pinnata in two Indian states. One of the Himalayan Institute's partners developed a consistently high yield scion
Grafting
Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues from one plant are inserted into those of another so that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together. This vascular joining is called inosculation...
that reduced the time it takes to mature from 10 years to as little as three. To help the farmers in the transition from traditional crops to M. pinnata the Indian government has contributed over $30 million in low-interest loans and donated 4.5 million kg (5,000 short ton
Short ton
The short ton is a unit of mass equal to . In the United States it is often called simply ton without distinguishing it from the metric ton or the long ton ; rather, the other two are specifically noted. There are, however, some U.S...
s) of rice to sustain impoverished drought-stricken farmers until the trees begin to produce income. Since the project began in 2003 over 20 million trees have been planted and 45,000 farmers are now involved.
In 2006 the Himalayan Institute began looking at locations in Africa to transplant M. pinnata into. Initially they began in Uganda
Uganda
Uganda , officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is also known as the "Pearl of Africa". It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by...
but due to the lack of infrastructure
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function...
and growing desertification
Desertification
Desertification is the degradation of land in drylands. Caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human activities, desertification is one of the most significant global environmental problems.-Definitions:...
the project has been growing very slowly. They have also begun a project in the Kumbo
Kumbo
Kumbo, also known as Kimbo, is the second-largest city in the North West Province of Cameroon and the capital of Bui Département. It lies about 2000m above sea level and is situated approximately 110km away from Bamenda , on the Bamenda Highlands Ring Road...
region of Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon , is a country in west Central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the...
where conditions are better. There has been some suggestions that M. pinnata could be grown all the way across the continent as a way to prevent the encroachment of the Sahara
Sahara
The Sahara is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over , it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean...
.
University of Queensland
The University of Queensland, also known as UQ, is a public university located in state of Queensland, Australia. Founded in 1909, it is the oldest and largest university in Queensland and the fifth oldest in the nation...
node of the Australian Research Council Center for Excellence in Legume Research, under the directorship of Professor Peter Gresshoff, in conjunction with Pacific Renewable Energy
Pacific Renewable Energy
-History:In 2003 the directors of PRE, who were the primary founders of the The Australian Biodiesel Group Limited, began their search for a sustainable replacement for used cooking oil and Tallow which are currently used for biodiesel production in Australia. Their search ended on finding...
are currently working on M. pinnata for commercial use for the production of biofuel. Projects are currently focused on understanding aspects of M. pinnata including root biology, nodulation, nitrogen fixation, domestication genes, grafting, salinity tolerance, and the genetics of the oil production pathways. Emphasis is given to analyzing carbon sequestration (in relation to carbon credits) and nitrogen gain.
Research has also been put into using the material leftover from the oil extraction as a feed supplement for cattle, sheep and poultry as this byproduct contains up to 30% protein. Other studies have shown some potential for biocidal
Biocide
A biocide is a chemical substance or microorganism which can deter, render harmless, or exert a controlling effect on any harmful organism by chemical or biological means. Biocides are commonly used in medicine, agriculture, forestry, and industry...
activity against V. cholerae
Vibrio cholerae
Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, comma-shaped bacterium. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. V. cholerae is facultatively anaerobic and has a flagella at one cell pole. V...
and E. coli
Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms . Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls...
, as well an anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (reduction in sensitivity to painful stimuli) and antipyretic (reduction in fever) properties. There is also research indicating that M. pinnata can be used as a natural insecticide
Insecticide
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind...
.