Polymer science
Encyclopedia
Polymer science or macromolecular science is the subfield of materials science
concerned with polymer
s, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastic
s. The field of polymer science includes researchers in multiple disciplines including chemistry
, physics
, and engineering
.
This science
comprises three main sub-disciplines:
's work in the 1830s is perhaps the first modern example of polymer science. Braconnot, along with Christian Schönbein and others, developed derivatives of the natural polymer cellulose
, producing new, semi-synthetic materials, such as celluloid
and cellulose acetate
. The term "polymer" was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius
, though Berzelius did little that would be considered polymer science in the modern sense. In the 1840s, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered
that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber
(polyisoprene
) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky. In 1844 Charles Goodyear
received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing
natural rubber with sulfur
and heat. Thomas Hancock
had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before. This process strengthened natural rubber and prevented it from melting with heat without losing flexibility. This made practical products such as water-proofed articles possible. It also facilitated practical manufacture of such rubberized materials. Vulcanized rubber represents the first commercially successful product of polymer research. In 1884 Hilaire de Chardonnet
started the first artificial fiber
plant based on regenerated cellulose
, or viscose
rayon
, as a substitute for silk
, but it was very flammable. In 1907 Leo Baekeland
invented the first synthetic
polymer, a thermosetting phenol
-formaldehyde
resin called Bakelite.
Despite significant advances in polymer synthesis, the molecular nature of polymers was not understood until the work of Hermann Staudinger
in 1922. Prior to Staudinger's work, polymers were understood in terms of the association theory
or aggregate theory, which originated with Thomas Graham
in 1861. Graham proposed that cellulose and other polymers were "colloids", aggregates of molecules small molecular mass connected by an unknown intermolecular force. Hermann Staudinger
was the first to propose that polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bond
s. It took over a decade for Staudinger's work to gain wide acceptance in the scientific community, work for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1953.
The World War II
era marked the emergence of a strong commercial polymer industry. The limited or restricted supply of natural materials such as silk and latex necessitated the increased production of synthetic substitutes, such as rayon
and neoprene
. In the intervening years, the development of advanced polymers such as Kevlar
and Teflon have continued to fuel a strong and growing polymer industry.
The growth in industrial applications was mirrored by the establishment of strong academic programs and research institute. In 1946, Herman Mark
established the Polymer Research Institute at Brooklyn Polytechnic, the first research facility in the United States
dedicated to polymer research. Mark is also recognized as a pioneer in establishing curriculum and pedagogy for the field of polymer science. In 1950, the POLY division of the American Chemical Society
was formed, and has since grown to the second-largest division in this association with nearly 8,000 members. Fred W.Billmeyer, JR, a Professor of Analytical Chemistry had once said that "although the scarcity of education in polymer science is slowly diminishing but it is still evident in many areas. What is most unfortunate is that it appears to exist, not because of a lack of awareness but, rather, a lack of interest." in his textbook of polymer science
for olefin metathesis.
2002 (Chemistry) John Bennett Fenn, Koichi Tanaka
, and Kurt Wüthrich
for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
.
2000 (Chemistry) Alan G. MacDiarmid, Alan J. Heeger
, and Hideki Shirakawa
for work on conductive polymers, contributing to the advent of molecular electronics
.
1991 (Physics) Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
for developing a generalized theory of phase transitions with particular applications to describing ordering and phase transitions in polymers.
1974 (Chemistry) Paul J. Flory for contributions to theoretical polymer chemistry.
1963 (Chemistry) Giulio Natta
and Karl Ziegler
for contributions in polymer synthesis. (Ziegler-Natta catalysis).
1953 (Chemistry) Hermann Staudinger
for contributions to the understanding of macromolecular chemistry.
Materials science
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It incorporates...
concerned with polymer
Polymer
A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds...
s, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastic
Plastic
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs...
s. The field of polymer science includes researchers in multiple disciplines including chemistry
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
, physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
, and engineering
Engineering
Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...
.
This science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
comprises three main sub-disciplines:
- Polymer chemistryPolymer chemistryPolymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is a multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. According to IUPAC recommendations, macromolecules refer to the individual molecular chains and are the domain of chemistry...
or macromolecular chemistry, concerned with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers. - Polymer physicsPolymer physicsPolymer physics is the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively....
, concerned with the bulk properties of polymer materials and engineering applications. - Polymer characterizationPolymer characterizationPolymer characterization is the analytical branch of polymer science.The discipline is concerned with the characterization of polymeric materials on a variety of levels...
is concerned with the analysis of chemical structure and morphology and the determination of physical properties in relation to compositional and structural parameters.
History of polymer science
Henri BraconnotHenri Braconnot
Henri Braconnot was a French chemist and pharmacist.He was born in Commercy, his father being a counsel at the local parliament...
's work in the 1830s is perhaps the first modern example of polymer science. Braconnot, along with Christian Schönbein and others, developed derivatives of the natural polymer cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
, producing new, semi-synthetic materials, such as celluloid
Celluloid
Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, plus dyes and other agents. Generally regarded to be the first thermoplastic, it was first created as Parkesine in 1862 and as Xylonite in 1869, before being registered as Celluloid in 1870. Celluloid is...
and cellulose acetate
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose acetate , first prepared in 1865, is the acetate ester of cellulose. Cellulose acetate is used as a film base in photography, as a component in some adhesives, and as a frame material for eyeglasses; it is also used as a synthetic fiber and in the manufacture of cigarette filters and...
. The term "polymer" was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius
Jöns Jakob Berzelius
Jöns Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish chemist. He worked out the modern technique of chemical formula notation, and is together with John Dalton, Antoine Lavoisier, and Robert Boyle considered a father of modern chemistry...
, though Berzelius did little that would be considered polymer science in the modern sense. In the 1840s, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered
Plastic
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs...
that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber
Rubber
Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, is an elastomer that was originally derived from latex, a milky colloid produced by some plants. The plants would be ‘tapped’, that is, an incision made into the bark of the tree and the sticky, milk colored latex sap collected and refined...
(polyisoprene
Isoprene
Isoprene , or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, is a common organic compound with the formula CH2=CCH=CH2. Under standard conditions it is a colorless liquid...
) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky. In 1844 Charles Goodyear
Charles Goodyear
Charles Goodyear was an American inventor who developed a process to vulcanize rubber in 1839 -- a method that he perfected while living and working in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1844, and for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844Although...
received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing
Vulcanization
Vulcanization or vulcanisation is a chemical process for converting rubber or related polymers into more durable materials via the addition of sulfur or other equivalent "curatives." These additives modify the polymer by forming crosslinks between individual polymer chains. Vulcanized material is...
natural rubber with sulfur
Sulfur
Sulfur or sulphur is the chemical element with atomic number 16. In the periodic table it is represented by the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow...
and heat. Thomas Hancock
Thomas Hancock (inventor)
Thomas Hancock , elder brother of inventor Walter Hancock, was an English inventor who founded the British rubber industry...
had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before. This process strengthened natural rubber and prevented it from melting with heat without losing flexibility. This made practical products such as water-proofed articles possible. It also facilitated practical manufacture of such rubberized materials. Vulcanized rubber represents the first commercially successful product of polymer research. In 1884 Hilaire de Chardonnet
Hilaire de Chardonnet
Hilaire de Chardonnet , born Louis-Marie Hilaire Bernigaud de Chardonnet, was a French engineer and industrialist from Besançon, inventor of artificial silk....
started the first artificial fiber
Fiber
Fiber is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together....
plant based on regenerated cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
, or viscose
Viscose
Viscose is a viscous organic liquid used to make rayon and cellophane. Viscose is becoming synonymous with rayon, a soft material commonly used in shirts, shorts, coats, jackets, and other outer wear.-Manufacture:...
rayon
Rayon
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry...
, as a substitute for silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
, but it was very flammable. In 1907 Leo Baekeland
Leo Baekeland
Leo Hendrik Baekeland was a Belgian chemist who invented Velox photographic paper and Bakelite , an inexpensive, nonflammable, versatile, and popular plastic, which marks the beginning of the modern plastics industry.-Career:Leo Baekeland was born in Sint-Martens-Latem near Ghent, Belgium,...
invented the first synthetic
Chemical synthesis
In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions...
polymer, a thermosetting phenol
Phenol
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, phenic acid, is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid. The molecule consists of a phenyl , bonded to a hydroxyl group. It is produced on a large scale as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds...
-formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula CH2O. It is the simplest aldehyde, hence its systematic name methanal.Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor. It is an important precursor to many other chemical compounds, especially for polymers...
resin called Bakelite.
Despite significant advances in polymer synthesis, the molecular nature of polymers was not understood until the work of Hermann Staudinger
Hermann Staudinger
- External links :* Staudinger's * Staudinger's Nobel Lecture *....
in 1922. Prior to Staudinger's work, polymers were understood in terms of the association theory
Association theory
Association theory is a discredited theory first advanced by chemist Thomas Graham in 1861 to describe the molecular structure of substances such as cellulose and starch, now understood to be polymers. Association theory postulates that such materials are composed of a collection of smaller...
or aggregate theory, which originated with Thomas Graham
Thomas Graham (chemist)
Thomas Graham FRS was a nineteenth-century Scottish chemist who is best-remembered today for his pioneering work in dialysis and the diffusion of gases.- Life and work :...
in 1861. Graham proposed that cellulose and other polymers were "colloids", aggregates of molecules small molecular mass connected by an unknown intermolecular force. Hermann Staudinger
Hermann Staudinger
- External links :* Staudinger's * Staudinger's Nobel Lecture *....
was the first to propose that polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bond
Covalent bond
A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding....
s. It took over a decade for Staudinger's work to gain wide acceptance in the scientific community, work for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
in 1953.
The World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
era marked the emergence of a strong commercial polymer industry. The limited or restricted supply of natural materials such as silk and latex necessitated the increased production of synthetic substitutes, such as rayon
Rayon
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry...
and neoprene
Neoprene
Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene in general has good chemical stability, and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range...
. In the intervening years, the development of advanced polymers such as Kevlar
Kevlar
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...
and Teflon have continued to fuel a strong and growing polymer industry.
The growth in industrial applications was mirrored by the establishment of strong academic programs and research institute. In 1946, Herman Mark
Herman Francis Mark
Herman Francis Mark was an Austrian-American chemist regarded for his contributions to the development of polymer science. Mark's x-ray diffraction work on the molecular structure of fibers provided important evidence for the macromolecular theory of polymer structure...
established the Polymer Research Institute at Brooklyn Polytechnic, the first research facility in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
dedicated to polymer research. Mark is also recognized as a pioneer in establishing curriculum and pedagogy for the field of polymer science. In 1950, the POLY division of the American Chemical Society
American Chemical Society
The American Chemical Society is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. Founded in 1876 at New York University, the ACS currently has more than 161,000 members at all degree-levels and in all fields of chemistry, chemical...
was formed, and has since grown to the second-largest division in this association with nearly 8,000 members. Fred W.Billmeyer, JR, a Professor of Analytical Chemistry had once said that "although the scarcity of education in polymer science is slowly diminishing but it is still evident in many areas. What is most unfortunate is that it appears to exist, not because of a lack of awareness but, rather, a lack of interest." in his textbook of polymer science
Nobel prizes related to polymer science
2005 (Chemistry) Robert Grubbs, Richard Schrock, Yves ChauvinYves Chauvin
Yves Chauvin is a French chemist and Nobel Prize laureate. He is honorary research director at the Institut français du pétrole and a member of the French Academy of Science. Chauvin received his degree from the Lyon School of Chemistry, Physics and Electronics in 1954.He was awarded the 2005...
for olefin metathesis.
2002 (Chemistry) John Bennett Fenn, Koichi Tanaka
Koichi Tanaka
is a Japanese scientist who shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 for developing a novel method for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules with John Bennett Fenn and Kurt Wuthrich ....
, and Kurt Wüthrich
Kurt Wüthrich
Kurt Wüthrich is a Swiss chemist and Nobel Chemistry laureate.-Biography:Born in Aarberg, Switzerland, Wüthrich was educated in chemistry, physics, and mathematics at the University of Berne before pursuing his Ph.D. under the direction of Silvio Fallab at the University of Basel, awarded in 1964...
for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
Biopolymer
Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Since they are polymers, Biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers based on the differing monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed...
.
2000 (Chemistry) Alan G. MacDiarmid, Alan J. Heeger
Alan J. Heeger
Alan Jay Heeger is an American physicist, academic and Nobel Prize laureate in chemistry.Heeger was born in Sioux City, Iowa to a Jewish family. He earned a B.S. in physics and mathematics from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln in 1957, and a Ph.D in physics from the University of California,...
, and Hideki Shirakawa
Hideki Shirakawa
Hideki Shirakawa is a Japanese chemist and winner of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of conductive polymers together with physics professor Alan J. Heeger and chemistry professor Alan G...
for work on conductive polymers, contributing to the advent of molecular electronics
Molecular electronics
Molecular electronics, sometimes called moletronics, involves the study and application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components...
.
1991 (Physics) Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was a French physicist and the Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1991.-Biography:...
for developing a generalized theory of phase transitions with particular applications to describing ordering and phase transitions in polymers.
1974 (Chemistry) Paul J. Flory for contributions to theoretical polymer chemistry.
1963 (Chemistry) Giulio Natta
Giulio Natta
Giulio Natta was an Italian chemist and Nobel laureate. He won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 with Karl Ziegler for work on high polymers.-Early years:...
and Karl Ziegler
Karl Ziegler
Karl Waldemar Ziegler was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963, with Giulio Natta, for work on polymers. The Nobel Committee recognized his "excellent work on organometallic compounds [which]...led to new polymerization reactions and ... paved the way for new and highly...
for contributions in polymer synthesis. (Ziegler-Natta catalysis).
1953 (Chemistry) Hermann Staudinger
Hermann Staudinger
- External links :* Staudinger's * Staudinger's Nobel Lecture *....
for contributions to the understanding of macromolecular chemistry.