Pham Van Dong (ARVN general)
Encyclopedia
Phạm Văn Đồng was a Vietnam
ese general known for his bravery. In 1965, as military governor of Saigon, he had successfully repressed Buddhist mobs instigated by Thích Trí Quang
of the Ấn Quang group and Thích Tâm Châu of Việt Nam Quốc Tự. With his commanding skills and knowledge, Đồng was regarded highly by American and French officers, and well respected by many ARVN
officers. A staunch nationalist and anti-communist, he was considered an ally to the labor union, the Northern Catholics
, several Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (Việt Quốc)
factions, multiple Đại Việt
groups, Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội (Việt Cách) high-ranking members, Duy Dân and Hòa Hảo
leaders.
, Tonkin
(now North Vietnam
), when Việt-Nam
was still part of the French empire. He grew up in his father's village of Xuân Ðỗ, Gia Lâm district (then part of Bắc Ninh
province) and went to school in Hà Nội
where he earned the "Thành Chung" (Diplôme d'Etudes Primaires Superieures Indochinoises (DEPSI)) upon his graduation from Ðỗ Hữu Vị School.
Generations of Đồng's family had taught at the Imperial Court. Phạm Văn Đồng himself had planned to become a teacher, so he enrolled at the École Normale d’Instituteurs. In 1939, he had to withdraw, as he did not have the money to bribe a court official, even though he had passed the required examinations. He then joined the French colonial army at the persuasion of his father's friend. It was a good decision as Đồng would later become one of the first Vietnamese officers to command French soldiers at the light division level (Groupement Mobile). Đồng was also one of the few ARVN officers to have been officers in the French Army and the only general officer who had begun his military career as a private
.
. Here, he earned the trust of young Nùng, many of whom he later trained to be competent officers of the ARVN.
On March 9, 1945, as part of the Second French Indochina Campaign
, Japanese Imperial Army forces in Tonkin
attacked two battalions of the 19ème RMIC at Hà Cối. Two days later, the regiment commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles LeCocq, was killed in action while leading a counter-attack. His body would have been left behind were it not for the sharp-shooter Hoang Duc Phung who recovered it with Đồng's mortar support.
Two weeks later, Đồng and remnants of the 1er Territoire Militaire fought their way to Quảng Tây
in South China where they joined General Marcel Alessandri who had been cooperating with the Chinese National Kuomingtang Army (國民革命軍)
in the fight against Japanese armies. There, Đồng attended a special officer class. During this period, he secretly made contacts with several Việt Quốc revolutionaries-in-exile most of whom would become his good friends and ardent supporters throughout his career in South Vietnam. At the end of 1945, Sous Lieutenant
Đồng returned to Vietnam where he was assigned to Vạn Hoa.
where he participated in several major operations in Gò Công
, Long Thành
, and Thành Tuy Hạ. A year later, his successes against communist troops earned him a promotion to Lieutenant. His abilities in organizing intelligence networks eventually landed him a position working for the Governor of North Vietnam, Nghiêm Xuân Thiện as Sous-Directeur des Etudes (Phó Sở Nghiên Cứu) where he reported to Captain Sylvain Trần Văn Minh
.
In 1949, Lieutenant Đồng went back to the army as Chief of S-2 for the 2e BVN (Trưởng Phòng 2 của Bộ chỉ huy TĐ2 VN). In 1950, the State of Vietnam’s Minister of Defense Phan Huy Quát
, a Đại Việt
leader, asked Đồng to join the Vietnamese National Army
. A year later, after participating in the battle of Vĩnh Yên
, he was appointed Commandant of the South Zone based in Nam Định
.
Early 1952, Captain Đồng was appointed Commander of the 55th Vietnamese Battalion (55e BVN) stationed at the Na San fire-base. In late November, using 3 battle-hardened divisions (308th, 316th and 320th) General Giap attacked Na San
with the intention of defeating the French Union forces to take control of northwest Tonkin. The 55e BVN fought valiantly against the enemy's relentless assaults. To put an end to the "human wave", Đồng ordered his artillery-support to level and to fire howitzers loaded with fragmentation shells directly at the enemy troops. His decision saved the battalion and earned him a promotion to Major.
By the end of the year, he took command of the 2e Groupe Mobile that participated in some of the hardest-fought battles to pacify the Red River Delta
, especially in the Ninh Bình
area during operation Hautes Alpes in March 1953. In September 1953, he was appointed Commander of the Bùi Chu Secteur and concurrently Commander of the Forces of North Vietnam Light Battalions and Artillery. The latter position was very important, for he was in command of nineteen light infantry battalions (TĐKQ) and three artillery companies with the mission to pacify a military zone comprising seven provinces.
Prior to taking command of Bùi Chu, Đồng participated in Operation Tarentaise to take back areas under the Việt Minh
's control. In October 1953, he commanded Operation Lê Lợi to attack enemy's strongholds in the area. The operation was successful, though the cost was high: one of Đồng light battalions at Quần Phương Hạ was completely destroyed by the Việt Minh's more seasoned independent regiments.
It was in Bùi Chu that Đồng, a Buddhist, would become an ally of Bishop Phạm Ngọc Chi, his diocese and Father Hoàng Quỳnh. In return, these Roman Catholics would become his staunch supporters in both North and South Vietnam.
In mid 1954, he was sent to South Korea to attend a special military training. Coming back to Vietnam shortly after the Geneva Convention that had partitioned the country into two, Đồng as Commander of the Quảng Yên Military Academy redeployed the academy resources and its personnel southward during Operation Passage to Freedom
.
After the partition of Vietnam into two countries, Head-of-State Bảo Đại
brought his government south where power struggles among different groups would lead to a change in the country's political future. Early 1955, Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm
consolidated his power over South Vietnam by forcing General Hinh
to leave the country then by using the armed forces to defeat the Bình Xuyên
, Hòa Hảo
and Cao Đài
forces. Then, in a rigged referendum on October 23, 1955, Diệm ousted Bảo Đại and founded the Republic. During this time, Đồng was the Coastal Zone Commander (Liên Khu Duyên Hải). After the referendum, Diệm celebrated his rise to power by promoting all senior officers. Even though he supported General Hinh, Đồng was promoted to Colonel. He would remain in charge of the coastal zone until October 25, 1956 when President Diệm transferred him to Sông Mao (Bình Thuận
) to command the 3rd Field Division, a unit made up entirely of Nùng soldiers. Lieutenant Colonel Ðỗ Mậu
, Đồng's second-in-command who was Diệm's protégé and a Cần Lao party member, was promoted to replace him. Ironically, Mậu later would betray Diệm in 1963.
Colonel Đồng attracted Diệm's attention by refusing to let Cần Lao's cadres conduct political training sessions for his troops. Moreover, he also befriended and sheltered remnants of the Bình Xuyên and Hòa Hảo's defeated forces.
In March 1958, President Diệm seeing that the 3rd Field Division was loyal to none but Colonel Đồng, transferred Nùng soldiers to other units within the Army. In 1959, some of the Nùng soldiers left the army to join Father Nguyễn Lạc Hoá
, a good friend of Đồng and a fervent anti-communist priest at the newly-formed Sea Swallows enclave in Cà Mau
. Đồng, who was self-taught in English, was sent to training at the United States Army Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.
When Đồng returned to Vietnam in 1959, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the III Corps
. In this position, he was in charge of conducting campaigns against NVA and Vietcong units within the Corps's territory. During this period, he was not killed as President Diệm had hoped. Instead, due to his bravery, Đồng earned the loyalty of his new troops and the respect of many junior officers which caused Diệm to mistrust him even more. The Ngô Đình's family personally disliked the colonel because of his friendship with Western reporters who had been writing articles damaging to the country's cause and unity (such as Neil Sheehan
, David Halberstam
, Malcolm Browne
, François Sully
, Robert Shaplen, Peter Arnett
, and Beverly Deepe). In December 1962, after an American general had advised Diệm to promote Đồng to general and after hearing other American advisers praised the colonel for his commanding skills, the president demoted Đồng to III Corps's Inspector General of Strategic Hamlets.
In August 1963, Buddhist monks caused a political disturbance, commonly known as the Buddhist Crisis
. This turmoil led to the November 1st coup d’état that toppled Diệm's government. Shortly before the coup, President Diệm had the colonel held at Camp Lê Văn Duyệt
out of suspicion that the latter was preparing to launch a coup to topple the government. Đồng was indeed one of the conspirators and his detention shifted the President's suspicion away from other senior officers, primarily General Đôn
, head of a CIA-backed and funded group of plotters (CIA liaison officer Lucien Conein
gave this group $42,000 USD). On November 2, General Dương Văn "Big" Minh
, a Diệm's protégé, ordered his bodyguard Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung
and Major Dương Hiếu Nghĩa
to torture and to kill the brothers Ngô Đình. Most Vietnamese senior officers suspected that general Minh took US Ambassador Lodge
's suggestion of eliminating the brothers "to prevent any colonel from bring them back to power".
Several ARVN generals then assumed leadership of South Vietnam. Power struggles, some of which influenced by the monk Trí Quang, would lead to a period of instability in the whole country. Political stability only came in 1967 when Lieutenant General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu
and Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ
were elected leaders of the 2nd Republic.
and with the increased United States involvement, the role of the ARVN became more significant but was seen by the media in the West as insignificant. After the coup, Colonel Đồng served briefly as 7th Infantry Division Commander, during which time he earned the alias "Tiger of the Delta" for his twelve successful operations against Vietcong and NVA troops. Late December 1963, he was abruptly relieved command of the division and was sent to Taiwan as military attaché
.
Returning from Taiwan in May 1964, he was promoted to Brigadier General by General Nguyễn Khánh
. Late October 1964, he was promoted to Major General. A month later on November 27, he was appointed military governor of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) and concurrently as Special Capital Military District Commander (Tư Lệnh Biệt Khu Thủ đô). During this time, Đồng formed and funded his own armed group made up almost entirely of Nùng soldiers.
Being charged with keeping the capital safe in these troubled times, he had to deal with an enemy in South Vietnam, the Buddhist Struggle Movement led by two monks, Thích Trí Quang
of the Ấn Quang group and Thích Tâm Châu of Việt Nam Quốc Tự (VNQT). Both of these monks wanted to topple the government of Vietnam, or at least to render it ineffective. Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương
, a Buddhist, took a firm stand against the movement to prevent the country from anarchy. During this turmoil, PM Hương fully supported General Đồng when the latter effectively handled Buddhist protests and street agitations. Arrests were limited but well chosen and almost of detainees were proven to be Communists agents within the Ấn Quang group. At one time, Đồng deployed two battalions to disband a violent and armed mob from VNQT. Tâm Châu stopped his anti-government activities after a meeting with General Nguyễn Khánh, while Trí Quang continued to cause political unrest. Recent declassified CIA documents suggest that the Buddhist movement had been penetrated by Viet Cong agents. Tâm Châu himself published a White Paper in 1993 accusing Trí Quang of being a power-hunger man manipulated by North Vietnam and of harboring Communist agents. A declassified French Sûreté report showed that Trí Quang joined the Indochinese Communist Party in 1949, a fact that former SRV Deputy Prime Miniter Tố Hữu proudly confirmed in 2000.
In January 1965, Trí Quang successfully pressured Head-of-State Nguyễn Khánh into dismissing P.M. Hương. A month later, Dr. Quát, a devout Buddhist and former Minister of Defense, was chosen to form a new government. Even without Hương to support his actions, the general did not hesitate in arresting communist agents, many of whom had disguised as monks in the Buddhist movement. His success in preventing Trí Quang from toppling the government led the Armed Forces Council (Hội Đồng Quân Lực) to name the general Uỷ Viên An-Ninh (Security Commissioner) in March, shortly after his friend Nguyễn Khánh was forced to resign and to leave the country.
Infuriated by the AFC's action, Trí Quang manipulated Quát, Thiệu and Kỳ into dismissing the general from his positions of military governor and Special Capital Military District Commander. A recent declassified CIA memo showed Thiệu as the one who requested general "Little" Minh
, the Chief of General Staff, to investigate Đồng for protecting gambling operations, a claim that Minh disputed and refused to do as asked. The same memo showed Quát wanting to dismiss the general for being a troublemaker and Kỳ claiming Đồng as corrupted. All of their actions against the general came after Trí Quang's continuous accusation that Đồng was pro Catholics and perhaps even pro Diệm. The monk cited the general's unexplained actions toward some of Diệm's people as evidences, such as: protecting Lê Văn "White" Thái (Dr. Tuyến
's assistant), or defending Trần Quốc Bửu (co-founder of the Cần Lao party) and Mã Tuyên (Head of the Triều Châu Chinese
in Saigon).
For two years after the dismissal, Đồng remained in politics. He stayed in touch with two friends who had been exiled by Kỳ: Nguyễn Chánh Thi
who sided with the monks during the Buddhist Crisis in Central Vietnam and Nguyễn Khánh who was too vocal against American intervention in Vietnamese affairs. During this period, he was sent to several special assignments abroad, most notably to Thailand
where his friend and a former Diem's supporter, general Thái Quang Hoàng was the Ambassador. In June 1967, Kỳ forced the general to retire.
The retirement did not stop Đồng from military and social affairs. He continued to keep in touch with ARVN general officers to learn of troops' morale and he mentored junior officers in tactics. He also continued to serve armed forces personnel by co-founding an association for ancient and current combatants, the Hiệp Hội Chiến Sĩ Tự Do.
He worked with Australian Brigadier Ted Serong
on a defense plan for the country in case the USA decided to stop all military aid. Closer to home, he continued to train his private army of Nùng soldiers.
to get financial and medical support for disabled veterans. His relationship with German officials in Oberhausen
resulted in military orphans or children of disabled veterans going there to further their education. Most of the students came from the seven ministry-sponsored Quốc Gia Nghĩa Tử schools. Minister Đồng's personal ties with Australian, Taiwanese and South Korean officials benefited Vietnamese veterans. During his tenure, Australia, Taiwan
and South Korea
provided much needed funding and training to disabled veterans at vocational facilities. His friendship with an American adviser Shelby Robert and his wife Miriam benefited the ministry as well. In April 1973, the Robert and the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church donated several wheelchairs and provided funding to train a Vietnamese doctor from the ministry. Later that year, the minister traveled to the United States and several western European countries to ask for financial assistance. The trip yielded good results: several US colleges provided the ministry with funding for the its prosthetic center. In particular, Ohio State University
sent professors to train teachers and to teach QGNT's students in three special courses: typing, accounting and home economics.
President Thiệu, in power since 1967, was becoming a dictator. By 1974, he had had thousands opposition persons arrested, and had increased the number of executions. Mass protest demonstrations led by opposition leaders in Saigon caused Thiệu to reorganize his cabinet in an attempt to quiet the opposition. He also used the occasion to get rid of potential threats to his power. Minister Đồng, with his own private army and considered by Thiệu as a potentially threat, was dismissed from the cabinet in February 1974 and two months later imprisoned without trial on corruption charges. Government-run newspapers and television channels then launched a public humiliation campaign against the minister, accusing him of corruption and of plotting against the government. In June, a special committee acquitted the minister of all charges after hearing testimonies from the ministry's high-ranking staff. Still, Đồng was only released in July after Trần Quốc Bửu, head of the Tổng Liên Đoàn Lao Công (Confederation of Vietnamese Labor, the equivalent of the American AFL-CIO), and Father Hoàng Quỳnh of the Northern Catholics pressured Thiệu to do so.
After his release, General Đồng spent his time mentoring senior Army officers and advising civilian opposition leaders on tactics against President Thiệu. The Communist invasion in 1975 cut short of his attempt to return to political power.
During the Fall of Saigon
, he and his family were able to escape on a US Air Force
C130
that took them to Guam
, and then onward to the United States where he was offered political asylum.
Two years after Lý died, Đồng remarried to Mỹ-Lan Trịnh, from whom he acquired three stepdaughters. In 1996, he and his new family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he died of congestive heart failure on November 26, 2008. Major General Phạm Văn Đồng is survived by his second wife Mỹ-Lan, five children, three stepchildren, nine grandchildren and three great-grandchildren.
General:
External Links on Medals:
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
ese general known for his bravery. In 1965, as military governor of Saigon, he had successfully repressed Buddhist mobs instigated by Thích Trí Quang
Thich Tri Quang
Thích Trí Quang is a Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk best known for his role in leading South Vietnam’s Buddhist population during the Buddhist crisis in 1963....
of the Ấn Quang group and Thích Tâm Châu of Việt Nam Quốc Tự. With his commanding skills and knowledge, Đồng was regarded highly by American and French officers, and well respected by many ARVN
Army of the Republic of Vietnam
The Army of the Republic of Viet Nam , sometimes parsimoniously referred to as the South Vietnamese Army , was the land-based military forces of the Republic of Vietnam , which existed from October 26, 1955 until the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975...
officers. A staunch nationalist and anti-communist, he was considered an ally to the labor union, the Northern Catholics
Roman Catholicism in Vietnam
The Roman Catholic Church in Vietnam is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and curia in Rome. Vietnam has the fifth largest Catholic population in Asia, after the Philippines, India, China and Indonesia....
, several Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (Việt Quốc)
Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang
The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng , also known as the Việt Quốc and the Vietnamese Kuomintang, is the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, a revolutionary socialist political party that sought independence from French colonial rule in Vietnam during the early 20th century...
factions, multiple Đại Việt
Dai Viet Quoc Dan Dang
Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng , often known simply as Đại Việt, was a nationalist and anti-communist political party and militant organisation that was active in Vietnam in the 20th century. The party was founded by Trương Tử Anh, known as Anh Cả Phương...
groups, Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội (Việt Cách) high-ranking members, Duy Dân and Hòa Hảo
Hoa Hao
Hòa Hảo is a religious tradition, based on Buddhism, founded in 1939 by Huỳnh Phú Sổ, a native of the Mekong River Delta region of southern Vietnam. Adherents consider Sổ to be a prophet, and Hòa Hảo a continuation of a 19th-century Buddhist ministry known as Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương...
leaders.
Early life and education
Phạm Văn Đồng (who has the same name the former Prime Minister of North Vietnam) was born October 25, 1919, in Quốc Oai district, Sơn TâySon Tay
Sơn Tây is an urban district and city in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam. It was the capital of Son Tay province before merging with Ha Dong province in 1965...
, Tonkin
Tonkin
Tonkin , also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is the northernmost part of Vietnam, south of China's Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces, east of northern Laos, and west of the Gulf of Tonkin. Locally, it is known as Bắc Kỳ, meaning "Northern Region"...
(now North Vietnam
North Vietnam
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam , was a communist state that ruled the northern half of Vietnam from 1954 until 1976 following the Geneva Conference and laid claim to all of Vietnam from 1945 to 1954 during the First Indochina War, during which they controlled pockets of territory throughout...
), when Việt-Nam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
was still part of the French empire. He grew up in his father's village of Xuân Ðỗ, Gia Lâm district (then part of Bắc Ninh
Bac Ninh
Bắc Ninh is a city in Vietnam and capital of the Bac Ninh province. The city is the cultural, administrative, and commercial center of the province. The city area is 80.82 square km, with a population of 150,331 . In January, 2006, the town of Bac Ninh was upgraded to city...
province) and went to school in Hà Nội
Hanoi
Hanoi , is the capital of Vietnam and the country's second largest city. Its population in 2009 was estimated at 2.6 million for urban districts, 6.5 million for the metropolitan jurisdiction. From 1010 until 1802, it was the most important political centre of Vietnam...
where he earned the "Thành Chung" (Diplôme d'Etudes Primaires Superieures Indochinoises (DEPSI)) upon his graduation from Ðỗ Hữu Vị School.
Generations of Đồng's family had taught at the Imperial Court. Phạm Văn Đồng himself had planned to become a teacher, so he enrolled at the École Normale d’Instituteurs. In 1939, he had to withdraw, as he did not have the money to bribe a court official, even though he had passed the required examinations. He then joined the French colonial army at the persuasion of his father's friend. It was a good decision as Đồng would later become one of the first Vietnamese officers to command French soldiers at the light division level (Groupement Mobile). Đồng was also one of the few ARVN officers to have been officers in the French Army and the only general officer who had begun his military career as a private
Private (rank)
A Private is a soldier of the lowest military rank .In modern military parlance, 'Private' is shortened to 'Pte' in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries and to 'Pvt.' in the United States.Notably both Sir Fitzroy MacLean and Enoch Powell are examples of, rare, rapid career...
.
World War II
Five years after joining the army as an enlisted man, he was promoted to Officer of Materials for the 2nd Battalion of the 19th Colonial Infantry Regiment (Officier du Matériel, II/19e RMIC) stationed in Móng CáiMong Cai
Móng Cái is a district-level city of Quang Ninh province in northern Vietnam, on the border with Dongxing town, Fangchenggang, Guangxi Province, China. It has a population of about 103,000. It is known as one of the wealthiest cities in Vietnam with the average income in some areas exceeding...
. Here, he earned the trust of young Nùng, many of whom he later trained to be competent officers of the ARVN.
On March 9, 1945, as part of the Second French Indochina Campaign
Second French Indochina Campaign
The Second French Indochina Campaign, also known as the Japanese coup of March 1945, was a Japanese military operation in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, then a French colony and known as French Indochina, during the final months of the Second World War. Vietnam was not a real colony at this time. The...
, Japanese Imperial Army forces in Tonkin
Tonkin
Tonkin , also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is the northernmost part of Vietnam, south of China's Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces, east of northern Laos, and west of the Gulf of Tonkin. Locally, it is known as Bắc Kỳ, meaning "Northern Region"...
attacked two battalions of the 19ème RMIC at Hà Cối. Two days later, the regiment commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Charles LeCocq, was killed in action while leading a counter-attack. His body would have been left behind were it not for the sharp-shooter Hoang Duc Phung who recovered it with Đồng's mortar support.
Two weeks later, Đồng and remnants of the 1er Territoire Militaire fought their way to Quảng Tây
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
in South China where they joined General Marcel Alessandri who had been cooperating with the Chinese National Kuomingtang Army (國民革命軍)
National Revolutionary Army
The National Revolutionary Army , pre-1928 sometimes shortened to 革命軍 or Revolutionary Army and between 1928-1947 as 國軍 or National Army was the Military Arm of the Kuomintang from 1925 until 1947, as well as the national army of the Republic of China during the KMT's period of party rule...
in the fight against Japanese armies. There, Đồng attended a special officer class. During this period, he secretly made contacts with several Việt Quốc revolutionaries-in-exile most of whom would become his good friends and ardent supporters throughout his career in South Vietnam. At the end of 1945, Sous Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces.- United Kingdom and Commonwealth :The rank second lieutenant was introduced throughout the British Army in 1871 to replace the rank of ensign , although it had long been used in the Royal Artillery, Royal...
Đồng returned to Vietnam where he was assigned to Vạn Hoa.
The First Indochina War
In 1946, Đồng was transferred to the southCochinchina
Cochinchina is a region encompassing the southern third of Vietnam whose principal city is Saigon. It was a French colony from 1862 to 1954. The later state of South Vietnam was created in 1954 by combining Cochinchina with southern Annam. In Vietnamese, the region is called Nam Bộ...
where he participated in several major operations in Gò Công
Gò Công
Gò Công is a town district of Tien Giang province in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. The town of Gò Công is not to be confused with East Gò Công and West Gò Công Districts which also belong to Tiền Giang Province....
, Long Thành
Long Thanh
Long Thanh is a district of Dong Nai Province in the Southeast region of Vietnam.As of 2003 the district had a population of 204,793. The district covers an area of 535 km². The district capital lies at Long Thanh Town....
, and Thành Tuy Hạ. A year later, his successes against communist troops earned him a promotion to Lieutenant. His abilities in organizing intelligence networks eventually landed him a position working for the Governor of North Vietnam, Nghiêm Xuân Thiện as Sous-Directeur des Etudes (Phó Sở Nghiên Cứu) where he reported to Captain Sylvain Trần Văn Minh
Tran Van Minh
Lieutenant General Sylvain Trần Văn Minh is a Vietnamese diplomat and a general of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. He was sometimes known as “Little Minh” to distinguish him from the huge Dương Văn Minh.In 1942, he passed the entry exam for the St Cyr/St Maxient Military Academy organized...
.
In 1949, Lieutenant Đồng went back to the army as Chief of S-2 for the 2e BVN (Trưởng Phòng 2 của Bộ chỉ huy TĐ2 VN). In 1950, the State of Vietnam’s Minister of Defense Phan Huy Quát
Phan Huy Quat
Dr. Phan Huy Quát served as acting Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam and also as Prime Minister of the Republic of Vietnam.-Biography:On July 2, 1949, Dr. Phan Huy Quát was appointed Minister of Education by Head of State Bảo Đại....
, a Đại Việt
Dai Viet Quoc Dan Dang
Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng , often known simply as Đại Việt, was a nationalist and anti-communist political party and militant organisation that was active in Vietnam in the 20th century. The party was founded by Trương Tử Anh, known as Anh Cả Phương...
leader, asked Đồng to join the Vietnamese National Army
Vietnamese National Army
On March 8, 1949, after the Elysee accords, the State of Vietnam was recognized by France as an independent country ruled by Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại. The Vietnamese National Army or Vietnam National Army was the State of Vietnam's military force created shortly after that. It was commanded by...
. A year later, after participating in the battle of Vĩnh Yên
Battle of Vinh Yen
The Battle of Vĩnh Yên , which occurred from 13 to 17 January 1951, was a major engagement in the First Indochina War between the French Union and the Việt Minh. The French Union forces, led by World War II hero Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Việt Minh forces, which...
, he was appointed Commandant of the South Zone based in Nam Định
Nam Dinh
Nam Định is a big city in the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Nam Dinh Province and capital of the South of Red River Delta. Nam Dinh province was, at one time, part of Ha Nam Ninh province until it was split up again in 1996 to return to being two separate provinces,...
.
Early 1952, Captain Đồng was appointed Commander of the 55th Vietnamese Battalion (55e BVN) stationed at the Na San fire-base. In late November, using 3 battle-hardened divisions (308th, 316th and 320th) General Giap attacked Na San
Battle of Na San
The Battle of Nà Sản was fought between French Union forces and the communist forces of the Việt Minh at Nà Sản, Sơn La Province, during the First Indochina War for control of the T’ai region ....
with the intention of defeating the French Union forces to take control of northwest Tonkin. The 55e BVN fought valiantly against the enemy's relentless assaults. To put an end to the "human wave", Đồng ordered his artillery-support to level and to fire howitzers loaded with fragmentation shells directly at the enemy troops. His decision saved the battalion and earned him a promotion to Major.
By the end of the year, he took command of the 2e Groupe Mobile that participated in some of the hardest-fought battles to pacify the Red River Delta
Red River Delta
The Red River Delta is the flat plain formed by the Red River and its distributaries joining in the Thai Binh River in northern Vietnam. The delta measuring some 15,000 square km is well protected by a network of dikes. It is an agriculturally rich area and densely populated...
, especially in the Ninh Bình
Ninh Bình
Ninh Bình is a city in the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Ninh Binh province.-Geography:Ninh Binh city located in the southernmost plains north Vietnam...
area during operation Hautes Alpes in March 1953. In September 1953, he was appointed Commander of the Bùi Chu Secteur and concurrently Commander of the Forces of North Vietnam Light Battalions and Artillery. The latter position was very important, for he was in command of nineteen light infantry battalions (TĐKQ) and three artillery companies with the mission to pacify a military zone comprising seven provinces.
Prior to taking command of Bùi Chu, Đồng participated in Operation Tarentaise to take back areas under the Việt Minh
Viet Minh
Việt Minh was a national independence coalition formed at Pac Bo on May 19, 1941. The Việt Minh initially formed to seek independence for Vietnam from the French Empire. When the Japanese occupation began, the Việt Minh opposed Japan with support from the United States and the Republic of China...
's control. In October 1953, he commanded Operation Lê Lợi to attack enemy's strongholds in the area. The operation was successful, though the cost was high: one of Đồng light battalions at Quần Phương Hạ was completely destroyed by the Việt Minh's more seasoned independent regiments.
It was in Bùi Chu that Đồng, a Buddhist, would become an ally of Bishop Phạm Ngọc Chi, his diocese and Father Hoàng Quỳnh. In return, these Roman Catholics would become his staunch supporters in both North and South Vietnam.
In mid 1954, he was sent to South Korea to attend a special military training. Coming back to Vietnam shortly after the Geneva Convention that had partitioned the country into two, Đồng as Commander of the Quảng Yên Military Academy redeployed the academy resources and its personnel southward during Operation Passage to Freedom
Operation Passage to Freedom
Operation Passage to Freedom was the term used by the United States Navy to describe its transportation in 1954–55 of 310,000 Vietnamese civilians, soldiers and non-Vietnamese members of the French Army from communist North Vietnam to South Vietnam...
.
From 1954 to the end of the 1st Republic
Đồng had done well as a military man. He had been recognized as a capable tactician by his superiors who continuously promoted him in the first 14 years of his military career. From a humble beginning as a plain soldier in 1939, he had steadily climbed the military ladder to the position of Lieutenant Colonel at the end of the First Indochina War.After the partition of Vietnam into two countries, Head-of-State Bảo Đại
Bảo Đài
Bảo Đài is a commune and village in Lục Nam District, Bac Giang Province, in northeastern Vietnam.-References:...
brought his government south where power struggles among different groups would lead to a change in the country's political future. Early 1955, Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm
Ngo Dinh Diem
Ngô Đình Diệm was the first president of South Vietnam . In the wake of the French withdrawal from Indochina as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords, Diệm led the effort to create the Republic of Vietnam. Accruing considerable U.S. support due to his staunch anti-Communism, he achieved victory in a...
consolidated his power over South Vietnam by forcing General Hinh
Nguyen Van Hinh
Nguyễn Văn Hinh , was appointed the Vietnamese National Army Chief of Staff by Emperor Bảo Đại. On November 8, 1954, after the First Indochina War he left South Vietnam in exile for France....
to leave the country then by using the armed forces to defeat the Bình Xuyên
Binh Xuyen
Bình Xuyên, often linked to its infamous leader, General Le van "Bay" Vien, was an independent military force within the Vietnamese National Army whose leaders once had lived outside the law and had sided with the Viet Minh...
, Hòa Hảo
Hoa Hao
Hòa Hảo is a religious tradition, based on Buddhism, founded in 1939 by Huỳnh Phú Sổ, a native of the Mekong River Delta region of southern Vietnam. Adherents consider Sổ to be a prophet, and Hòa Hảo a continuation of a 19th-century Buddhist ministry known as Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương...
and Cao Đài
Cao Dai
Cao Đài is a syncretistic, monotheistic religion, officially established in the city of Tay Ninh, southern Vietnam, in 1926. Đạo Cao Đài is the religion's shortened name, the full name is Đại Đạo Tam Kỳ Phổ Độ...
forces. Then, in a rigged referendum on October 23, 1955, Diệm ousted Bảo Đại and founded the Republic. During this time, Đồng was the Coastal Zone Commander (Liên Khu Duyên Hải). After the referendum, Diệm celebrated his rise to power by promoting all senior officers. Even though he supported General Hinh, Đồng was promoted to Colonel. He would remain in charge of the coastal zone until October 25, 1956 when President Diệm transferred him to Sông Mao (Bình Thuận
Binh Thuan Province
Bình Thuận is a province of Vietnam. It is located on the country's South Central Coast, not far from Ho Chi Minh City. It is sometimes seen as part of the Southeast Region. Binh Thuan is known for its scenery and for its good beaches...
) to command the 3rd Field Division, a unit made up entirely of Nùng soldiers. Lieutenant Colonel Ðỗ Mậu
Do Mau
Brigadier General Ðỗ Mậu was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam best known for his roles as a recruiting strategist in both the 1963 coup that toppled President Ngo Dinh Diem and the 1964 coup led by General Nguyen Khanh that deposed the junta of General Duong Van Minh...
, Đồng's second-in-command who was Diệm's protégé and a Cần Lao party member, was promoted to replace him. Ironically, Mậu later would betray Diệm in 1963.
Colonel Đồng attracted Diệm's attention by refusing to let Cần Lao's cadres conduct political training sessions for his troops. Moreover, he also befriended and sheltered remnants of the Bình Xuyên and Hòa Hảo's defeated forces.
In March 1958, President Diệm seeing that the 3rd Field Division was loyal to none but Colonel Đồng, transferred Nùng soldiers to other units within the Army. In 1959, some of the Nùng soldiers left the army to join Father Nguyễn Lạc Hoá
Nguyen Lac Hoa
Father Augustine Nguyen Lac Hoa , a refugee Chinese Catholic priest in South Vietnam, led a militia called the Sea Swallows that carved out an anticommunist enclave in the Viet Cong's Ca Mau Peninsula stronghold...
, a good friend of Đồng and a fervent anti-communist priest at the newly-formed Sea Swallows enclave in Cà Mau
Ca Mau Peninsula
peninsula makes up the southern tip of Vietnam. It is in Ca Mau province, and lies between the Gulf of Thailand to the west and the South China Sea to the east....
. Đồng, who was self-taught in English, was sent to training at the United States Army Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.
When Đồng returned to Vietnam in 1959, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the III Corps
III Corps (South Vietnam)
III Corps was a corps of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , the army of the nation state of South Vietnam that existed from 1955 to 1975...
. In this position, he was in charge of conducting campaigns against NVA and Vietcong units within the Corps's territory. During this period, he was not killed as President Diệm had hoped. Instead, due to his bravery, Đồng earned the loyalty of his new troops and the respect of many junior officers which caused Diệm to mistrust him even more. The Ngô Đình's family personally disliked the colonel because of his friendship with Western reporters who had been writing articles damaging to the country's cause and unity (such as Neil Sheehan
Neil Sheehan
Cornelius Mahoney "Neil" Sheehan is an American journalist. As a reporter for The New York Times in 1971, Sheehan obtained the classified Pentagon Papers from Daniel Ellsberg. His series in the Times revealed a secret U.S. Department of Defense history of the Vietnam War and resulted in government...
, David Halberstam
David Halberstam
David Halberstam was an American Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, author and historian, known for his early work on the Vietnam War, his work on politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, and his later sports journalism.-Early life and education:Halberstam...
, Malcolm Browne
Malcolm Browne
Malcolm Wilde Browne is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American journalist and photographer. His best known work is the award-winning photograph of the self-immolation of Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức in 1963.- Early life :...
, François Sully
François Sully
François Sully was a French journalist and photographer best known for his work during the Vietnam War. Sully was one of the earliest journalists to cover the Vietnam War and spent 24 years in Indochina...
, Robert Shaplen, Peter Arnett
Peter Arnett
Peter Gregg Arnett, ONZM is a New Zealand-American journalist.Arnett worked for National Geographic magazine, and later for various television networks, most notably CNN. He is well known for his coverage of war, including the Vietnam War and the Gulf War...
, and Beverly Deepe). In December 1962, after an American general had advised Diệm to promote Đồng to general and after hearing other American advisers praised the colonel for his commanding skills, the president demoted Đồng to III Corps's Inspector General of Strategic Hamlets.
In August 1963, Buddhist monks caused a political disturbance, commonly known as the Buddhist Crisis
Buddhist crisis
The Buddhist crisis was a period of political and religious tension in South Vietnam from May 1963 to November 1963 characterized by a series of repressive acts by the South Vietnamese government and a campaign of civil resistance, led mainly by Buddhist monks....
. This turmoil led to the November 1st coup d’état that toppled Diệm's government. Shortly before the coup, President Diệm had the colonel held at Camp Lê Văn Duyệt
Camp Le Van Duyet
Camp Lê Văn Duyệt was the headquarters of the III Corps of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . The III Corps oversaw the region surrounding the capital Saigon and was based in the city centre. It was named after Lê Văn Duyệt, an 18th-century military commander....
out of suspicion that the latter was preparing to launch a coup to topple the government. Đồng was indeed one of the conspirators and his detention shifted the President's suspicion away from other senior officers, primarily General Đôn
Tran Van Don
Trần Văn Đôn was a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and one of the principal figures in the coup d'état which deposed Ngô Đình Diệm from the presidency of South Vietnam.-Family:...
, head of a CIA-backed and funded group of plotters (CIA liaison officer Lucien Conein
Lucien Conein
Lt. Col. Lucien Emile Conein was a noted U.S. Army officer and Office of Strategic Services / Central Intelligence Agency operative...
gave this group $42,000 USD). On November 2, General Dương Văn "Big" Minh
Duong Van Minh
Minh was born on 16 February 1916 in Mỹ Tho Province in the Mekong Delta, the son of a wealthy landowner who served in a prominent position in the Finance Ministry of the French colonial administration...
, a Diệm's protégé, ordered his bodyguard Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung
Nguyen Van Nhung
Major Nguyễn Văn Nhung was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . After joining the French Army in 1944 during the colonial era of Vietnam, he soon met and became the aide-de-camp and bodyguard of Dương Văn Minh, and spent the rest of his career in this role as Minh rose up the ranks...
and Major Dương Hiếu Nghĩa
Duong Hieu Nghia
Colonel Dương Hiếu Nghĩa, born in Sa Đéc in 1925, was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. Nghia graduated from the Da Lat National Military Academy. During the Vietnam War, he served in various infantry and armored units. His highest administrative position was Province Chief of Vinh...
to torture and to kill the brothers Ngô Đình. Most Vietnamese senior officers suspected that general Minh took US Ambassador Lodge
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. was a Republican United States Senator from Massachusetts and a U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, South Vietnam, West Germany, and the Holy See . He was the Republican nominee for Vice President in the 1960 Presidential election.-Early life:Lodge was born in Nahant,...
's suggestion of eliminating the brothers "to prevent any colonel from bring them back to power".
Several ARVN generals then assumed leadership of South Vietnam. Power struggles, some of which influenced by the monk Trí Quang, would lead to a period of instability in the whole country. Political stability only came in 1967 when Lieutenant General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu
Nguyen Van Thieu
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu was president of South Vietnam from 1965 to 1975. He was a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , became head of a military junta, and then president after winning a fraudulent election...
and Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ
Nguyen Cao Ky
Nguyễn Cao Kỳ served as the chief of the Vietnam Air Force in the 1960s, before leading the nation as the prime minister of South Vietnam in a military junta from 1965 to 1967...
were elected leaders of the 2nd Republic.
The Turbulent Years (1964–1967)
With the escalation of the Vietnam WarVietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
and with the increased United States involvement, the role of the ARVN became more significant but was seen by the media in the West as insignificant. After the coup, Colonel Đồng served briefly as 7th Infantry Division Commander, during which time he earned the alias "Tiger of the Delta" for his twelve successful operations against Vietcong and NVA troops. Late December 1963, he was abruptly relieved command of the division and was sent to Taiwan as military attaché
Military attaché
A military attaché is a military expert who is attached to a diplomatic mission . This post is normally filled by a high-ranking military officer who retains the commission while serving in an embassy...
.
Returning from Taiwan in May 1964, he was promoted to Brigadier General by General Nguyễn Khánh
Nguyen Khanh
Nguyễn Khánh is a former general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam who variously served as Head of State and Prime minister of South Vietnam while at the head of a military junta from January 1964 until February 1965. He was involved in or against many coup attempts, failed and successful,...
. Late October 1964, he was promoted to Major General. A month later on November 27, he was appointed military governor of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) and concurrently as Special Capital Military District Commander (Tư Lệnh Biệt Khu Thủ đô). During this time, Đồng formed and funded his own armed group made up almost entirely of Nùng soldiers.
Being charged with keeping the capital safe in these troubled times, he had to deal with an enemy in South Vietnam, the Buddhist Struggle Movement led by two monks, Thích Trí Quang
Thich Tri Quang
Thích Trí Quang is a Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk best known for his role in leading South Vietnam’s Buddhist population during the Buddhist crisis in 1963....
of the Ấn Quang group and Thích Tâm Châu of Việt Nam Quốc Tự (VNQT). Both of these monks wanted to topple the government of Vietnam, or at least to render it ineffective. Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương
Tran Van Huong
Trần Văn Hương was a South Vietnamese politician. He was the penultimate president of South Vietnam prior to its surrender to the communist forces of North Vietnam.-Biography:...
, a Buddhist, took a firm stand against the movement to prevent the country from anarchy. During this turmoil, PM Hương fully supported General Đồng when the latter effectively handled Buddhist protests and street agitations. Arrests were limited but well chosen and almost of detainees were proven to be Communists agents within the Ấn Quang group. At one time, Đồng deployed two battalions to disband a violent and armed mob from VNQT. Tâm Châu stopped his anti-government activities after a meeting with General Nguyễn Khánh, while Trí Quang continued to cause political unrest. Recent declassified CIA documents suggest that the Buddhist movement had been penetrated by Viet Cong agents. Tâm Châu himself published a White Paper in 1993 accusing Trí Quang of being a power-hunger man manipulated by North Vietnam and of harboring Communist agents. A declassified French Sûreté report showed that Trí Quang joined the Indochinese Communist Party in 1949, a fact that former SRV Deputy Prime Miniter Tố Hữu proudly confirmed in 2000.
In January 1965, Trí Quang successfully pressured Head-of-State Nguyễn Khánh into dismissing P.M. Hương. A month later, Dr. Quát, a devout Buddhist and former Minister of Defense, was chosen to form a new government. Even without Hương to support his actions, the general did not hesitate in arresting communist agents, many of whom had disguised as monks in the Buddhist movement. His success in preventing Trí Quang from toppling the government led the Armed Forces Council (Hội Đồng Quân Lực) to name the general Uỷ Viên An-Ninh (Security Commissioner) in March, shortly after his friend Nguyễn Khánh was forced to resign and to leave the country.
Infuriated by the AFC's action, Trí Quang manipulated Quát, Thiệu and Kỳ into dismissing the general from his positions of military governor and Special Capital Military District Commander. A recent declassified CIA memo showed Thiệu as the one who requested general "Little" Minh
Tran Van Minh
Lieutenant General Sylvain Trần Văn Minh is a Vietnamese diplomat and a general of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. He was sometimes known as “Little Minh” to distinguish him from the huge Dương Văn Minh.In 1942, he passed the entry exam for the St Cyr/St Maxient Military Academy organized...
, the Chief of General Staff, to investigate Đồng for protecting gambling operations, a claim that Minh disputed and refused to do as asked. The same memo showed Quát wanting to dismiss the general for being a troublemaker and Kỳ claiming Đồng as corrupted. All of their actions against the general came after Trí Quang's continuous accusation that Đồng was pro Catholics and perhaps even pro Diệm. The monk cited the general's unexplained actions toward some of Diệm's people as evidences, such as: protecting Lê Văn "White" Thái (Dr. Tuyến
Tran Kim Tuyen
Dr. Trần Kim Tuyến was the chief of intelligence of South Vietnam under its first President Ngo Dinh Diem from 1955 to 1963. As a Roman Catholic, he was trusted by the Ngo family, and was part of their inner circle...
's assistant), or defending Trần Quốc Bửu (co-founder of the Cần Lao party) and Mã Tuyên (Head of the Triều Châu Chinese
Teochew people
The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the...
in Saigon).
For two years after the dismissal, Đồng remained in politics. He stayed in touch with two friends who had been exiled by Kỳ: Nguyễn Chánh Thi
Nguyen Chanh Thi
Lieutenant General Nguyễn Chánh Thi was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . He is best known for frequently being involved in coups in the 1960s and wielding substantial influence as a key member of various juntas that ruled South Vietnam from 1964 until 1966, when he was...
who sided with the monks during the Buddhist Crisis in Central Vietnam and Nguyễn Khánh who was too vocal against American intervention in Vietnamese affairs. During this period, he was sent to several special assignments abroad, most notably to Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
where his friend and a former Diem's supporter, general Thái Quang Hoàng was the Ambassador. In June 1967, Kỳ forced the general to retire.
The retirement did not stop Đồng from military and social affairs. He continued to keep in touch with ARVN general officers to learn of troops' morale and he mentored junior officers in tactics. He also continued to serve armed forces personnel by co-founding an association for ancient and current combatants, the Hiệp Hội Chiến Sĩ Tự Do.
He worked with Australian Brigadier Ted Serong
Ted Serong
Brigadier Francis Philip "Ted" Serong DSO, OBE was a senior officer of the Australian Army, most notable for his contributions to counter-insurgency and jungle warfare tactics, and as commander of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam from 1962 until 1965.-Early life:The path that took Serong...
on a defense plan for the country in case the USA decided to stop all military aid. Closer to home, he continued to train his private army of Nùng soldiers.
From the Height of a Political Career to Exile
From 1969 to 1974, General Đồng served military personnel in a different capacity, Minister of War Veterans (equivalent to the US Secretary of Veterans Affairs). During this time, he worked with West GermanyWest Germany
West Germany is the common English, but not official, name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990....
to get financial and medical support for disabled veterans. His relationship with German officials in Oberhausen
Oberhausen
Oberhausen is a city on the river Emscher in the Ruhr Area, Germany, located between Duisburg and Essen . The city hosts the International Short Film Festival Oberhausen and its Gasometer Oberhausen is an anchor point of the European Route of Industrial Heritage. It is also well known for the...
resulted in military orphans or children of disabled veterans going there to further their education. Most of the students came from the seven ministry-sponsored Quốc Gia Nghĩa Tử schools. Minister Đồng's personal ties with Australian, Taiwanese and South Korean officials benefited Vietnamese veterans. During his tenure, Australia, Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
and South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
provided much needed funding and training to disabled veterans at vocational facilities. His friendship with an American adviser Shelby Robert and his wife Miriam benefited the ministry as well. In April 1973, the Robert and the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church donated several wheelchairs and provided funding to train a Vietnamese doctor from the ministry. Later that year, the minister traveled to the United States and several western European countries to ask for financial assistance. The trip yielded good results: several US colleges provided the ministry with funding for the its prosthetic center. In particular, Ohio State University
Ohio State University
The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State, is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was originally founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the third largest university campus in the United States...
sent professors to train teachers and to teach QGNT's students in three special courses: typing, accounting and home economics.
President Thiệu, in power since 1967, was becoming a dictator. By 1974, he had had thousands opposition persons arrested, and had increased the number of executions. Mass protest demonstrations led by opposition leaders in Saigon caused Thiệu to reorganize his cabinet in an attempt to quiet the opposition. He also used the occasion to get rid of potential threats to his power. Minister Đồng, with his own private army and considered by Thiệu as a potentially threat, was dismissed from the cabinet in February 1974 and two months later imprisoned without trial on corruption charges. Government-run newspapers and television channels then launched a public humiliation campaign against the minister, accusing him of corruption and of plotting against the government. In June, a special committee acquitted the minister of all charges after hearing testimonies from the ministry's high-ranking staff. Still, Đồng was only released in July after Trần Quốc Bửu, head of the Tổng Liên Đoàn Lao Công (Confederation of Vietnamese Labor, the equivalent of the American AFL-CIO), and Father Hoàng Quỳnh of the Northern Catholics pressured Thiệu to do so.
After his release, General Đồng spent his time mentoring senior Army officers and advising civilian opposition leaders on tactics against President Thiệu. The Communist invasion in 1975 cut short of his attempt to return to political power.
During the Fall of Saigon
Fall of Saigon
The Fall of Saigon was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People's Army of Vietnam and the National Liberation Front on April 30, 1975...
, he and his family were able to escape on a US Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
C130
C-130 Hercules
The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed, now Lockheed Martin. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medical evacuation, and cargo transport...
that took them to Guam
Guam
Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. Guam is listed as one of 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United...
, and then onward to the United States where he was offered political asylum.
Personal life
In his spare time, Đồng wrote poems to relax under the pen name of Nùng Khánh Lâm. In 1944 while he was stationed in Móng Cái, he wrote poems to court a Nùng woman, Lê Thị Lý (1919–1992). They got married and eventually had five children. After coming to the States and settling in Arlington County, Virginia, Đồng would occasionally serve as a translator on special projects for the Defense Department before retiring in 1982 to take care of his wife who had suffered from a stroke.Two years after Lý died, Đồng remarried to Mỹ-Lan Trịnh, from whom he acquired three stepdaughters. In 1996, he and his new family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he died of congestive heart failure on November 26, 2008. Major General Phạm Văn Đồng is survived by his second wife Mỹ-Lan, five children, three stepchildren, nine grandchildren and three great-grandchildren.
Awards and decorations
General Đồng earned the following personal Vietnamese and foreign decorations and awards (unit citations are not listed):Vietnam military decorations
- Tương Trung Long Tinh Huy-Chương (Officier de l’Ordre du Dragon d'Annam - Order of the Dragon of Annam, Officer class)
- Đệ Tam Đẳng Bảo Quốc Huân-Chương (Commander of the National OrderNational Order of VietnamThe National Order of Vietnam was a combined military-civilian decoration of South Vietnam and was considered the highest honor that could be bestowed upon an individual by the Republic of Vietnam government....
) - Chương Mỹ Bội Tinh Đệ Nhất hạng (Chuong My Merit medal, 1st class)
- Đệ Tứ Đẳng Bảo Quốc Huân-Chương (Officer of the National OrderNational Order of VietnamThe National Order of Vietnam was a combined military-civilian decoration of South Vietnam and was considered the highest honor that could be bestowed upon an individual by the Republic of Vietnam government....
) - Lục Quân Huân-Chương Đệ Nhất hạng (Army Distinguished Service OrderVietnam Distinguished Service OrderThe Vietnam Distinguished Service Order was a military decoration of South Vietnam whichwas awarded throughout the years of the Vietnam War. The decoration was bestowed for meritorious or heroic deeds related to war time operations and was awarded for both combat andnon-combat service.There were...
, 1st class) - Anh Dũng Bội Tinh (Cross of GallantryVietnam Gallantry CrossThe Vietnam Gallantry Cross was a military decoration of South Vietnam which wasestablished in August 1950. Also known as the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry, the Gallantry Cross was awarded to any military personnel who have accomplished deeds of valor or displayed heroic conduct while fighting an...
, with 18 citations - palms & gold stars) - Phát Triển Sắc Tộc Bội Tinh Đệ Nhất hạng (Ethnic Development Service Medal, 1st class)
Foreign decorations and awards
- Republic of China Order of Blue Sky and White SunOrder of Blue Sky and White SunThe Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon is the Republic of China's second highest military award. Created in 1929, it is awarded for "outstanding contributions to national security under foreign invasion" and is second only to the Order of National Glory...
with Grand Cordon (青天白日勳章) - Republic of China Order of Brilliant Star, 1st Class(一等景星勳章)
- France Chevalier de la Légion d'honneurLégion d'honneurThe Legion of Honour, or in full the National Order of the Legion of Honour is a French order established by Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of the Consulat which succeeded to the First Republic, on 19 May 1802...
- France Croix de guerre 1939-1945 avec palme de bronze (citation a l'ordre de l'Armee)
- France Croix de guerre des Théatres d'Opérations ExterieuresCroix de guerre des Théatres d'Opérations ExterieuresThe Croix de guerre des théâtres d’opérations extérieures is a French medal rewarded for military service in foreign countries. It is granted to individuals who have received citations for their actions while engaged in military service overseas.-History:...
avec 2 palmes d’argent et 4 citations de bronze - France Croix du combattant volontaireCroix du combattant volontaire 1939–1945The Croix du combattant volontaire 1939–1945 is a French decoration that recognizes those who have volunteered to serve in a combat unit during World War II. It is the World War II equivalent of the Croix du Combattant Volontaire 1914–1918.-History:This decoration is equivalent to that awarded to...
- France Medaille Coloniale avec Barrette Extreme OrientColonial MedalThe Colonial Medal was a French decoration created by the "loi de finances" of 26 July 1893 to reward "military services in the colonies, resulting from participation in military operations, in a colony or a protectorate"...
- France Medaille d'honneur pour Actes de Courage et de Devouement
- France Medaille Commemorative de la guerre 1939-1945
- France Médaille commémorative de la campagne d'IndochineMédaille commémorative de la campagne d'IndochineThe Médaille commémorative de la campagne d'Indochine was a French military medal established on 1 August 1953 for the participants of the Indochina War. The medal was created to honor the members of the French Far East Expeditionary Corps, regular and reserve, for service in Indochina...
- France Chevalier de l’Ordre du merite du Territoire Autonome Nung
- France Croix d'officier de l’Ordre du Merite Civil de la Federation T’ai
- Republic of Korea Field Marshal Lord EuljiEulji MundeokEulji Mundeok was a noted military leader of early 7th century Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Often numbered among the greatest heroes in Korean military history, he defended Goguryeo against the Sui Chinese...
Cordon, ROK 2nd highest decoration Order of Military MeritOrder of Military Merit (Korea)The Order of Military Merit is the primary military decoration awarded by the government of Republic of Korea.-Classes of the Order:The order is divided into five classes:Notable recipients...
(무공훈장: 을지). - Republic of Korea Order of Service Merit, 2nd Class (근정훈장: 황조)
- Kingdom of Thailand Most Exalted Order of the White ElephantOrder of the White ElephantThe Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant is the most awarded order of Thailand. It was established in 1861 by King Rama IV of the Kingdom of Siam.The Order consists of eight classes:...
, Commander class (๒๓. ตริตราภรณ์ช้างเผือก - dtrì dtaa pon cháang-pèuak)
Quotes by
- "Our (the Republic of Vietnam government's) failure even to try winning the active loyalty of the rural population would lead toward defeat" (to George Allen, a US Army intelligence analyst in May 1960)
Quotes about
- "... his military skills, exceptional leadership and effort have contributed to the success (of the 55th BVN) at Na San in 1952 ..." (Republic of Korea's Minister of Defense Son Won Il, August 1954)
- " ... a professional soldier ... tough, combatwise ... long friendship ... two old comrades from widely divergent backgrounds pulled together by the drama of Indochina." (Howard R. Simpson wrote about Dong and their friendship, Tiger in the Barbed Wire)
- "... considered extremely tough .... the outstanding field commander in the country ... (other leaders) feared he might lead a revolt ..." (David Halberstam wrote about Dong's abilities as reported by American military advisers, The Making of a Quagmire)
- "... As to likely candidates to replace (General Nguyen) Khanh (as Head-of-State), I can only mention a few who seem to us the best qualified ... General Pham Van Dong has handled himself very well in his sensitive assignment as CG (Commanding General), Capital Military District, and has the confidence of Prime Minister (Tran Van) Huong ... Huong knows only Dong and likes him ..." (Ambassador Maxwell Taylor's telegram to U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk, December 23, 1964)
Glossary
- 1964-1967 = This period of political unrest caused by Communist-manipulated, CIA-backed monks was also known as the "time of the generals". During this time, senior officers often formed groups with their own armies either to stage a coup d'état or to protect themselves from their rivals. Evidences can be seen in photographs or senior officers and their troops wearing non-regulated uniforms of various designs.
- Armée Nationale Vietnamienne (ANV) = Quân đội Quốc gia Việt Nam (National Army of Vietnam) created in 1949 as the State of VietnamState of VietnamThe State of Vietnam was a state that claimed authority over all of Vietnam during the First Indochina War, and replaced the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam . The provisional government was a brief transitional administration between colonial Cochinchina and an independent state...
's armed forces. - ARVN = Army of the Republic of Vietnam, often incorrectly used as a collective term to refer to all South Vietnamese armed forces.
- Bình Xuyên connection = General Đồng's belief in sheltering nationalists-in-danger led to his friendship with several former members of the Bay Vien's Bình Xuyên (officially part of the QDQGVN under Head-of-State Bảo Đại). Lieutenant Lê Nhựt Quang, one of his earlier aides-de-camp, was the son of a Bình Xuyên member.
- Bùi Chu Secteur = located in Bùi Chu province and heavily populated by Catholics, the secteur was one of the first French military territories returned to the ANV's control.
- BVN = Bataillon Vietnamien. Officially formed in 1949 as part of the Army for the State of Vietnam, a typical battalion consisted of 829 men, armed with French weapons. Its officers could be either Vietnamese or French. BVNs were formed to replace French units. By 1954, there were 98 BVN's.
- Bataillon Léger = Light Infantry Battalion or Tiểu-đoàn Khinh-quân, formed in 1953, consisted of 638 men, armed entirely with US weapons. Its officers were Vietnamese. TDKQs were formed to pacify territories. By July, 1954, there were 81 TDKQ's.
- Corps = The Republic of Vietnam was divided into four tactical zones, each of which was a political as well as military jurisdiction.
- Duy Dân = Đại Việt Duy Dân (Great Viet Populism Party) founded in 1942 by Nguyen Huu Thanh, codename Ngoc Tho (White Jade Rabbit) or more commonly known as XYZ Thai Dich Ly Dong A. The party found its support among Northern Vietnamese intellectuals who saw Ly Dong A's Populism as one of the best Vietnamese political theories. A wrote many doctrines and one of his best work is Huyet Hoa (Blood Flower). In 1946, after a failed armed revolt to overthrow Ho Chi Minh's government, A and his lieutenants were arrested and executed in Hòa Bình. During the Vietnam War, Professor Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, one of Duy Dân's top theorists, was one of General Đồng's political advisers.
- Ðỗ Hữu Vị school = One of the few schools the colonial government allowed to open for Vietnamese students in Tonkin. It was named after the fifth son of Ðỗ Hữu Phương, Chợ Lớn's honorary mayor. Captain Vị, crippled after his plane had crashed in a 1914 mission, rejoined his former unit the 1st Foreign Legion Regiment. On July 9, 1916, Captain Vị, commander of the regiment's 7th company, died while leading an attack on German troops near Chancelier.
- Field Division = Sư-đoàn Dã Chiến with 8,600 men was organized as a regular division for conventional warfare.
- Groupe Mobile = Largest military unit in Indochina and equivalent to a brigade or a light infantry division, a GM had approximately 6,000 men. Besides the infantry troops, the unit had: 1 company of mortar and light artillery, 1 field battery battalion equipped with 105mm howitzers, 1 platoon of combat medics, 2 light armored companies and 2 amphibious forces.
- GS-2 = A group of officers in the headquarters of a military unit (in Đồng's case, a battalion) that provide their commanders with information for planning, coordinating, and supervising operations. In Military Staff Organization, "2" is the military intelligence group.
- Human Wave = Chiến Thuật Biển Người ("Sea of human" tactics) was a classic Communist offense used mostly by Chinese and Vietnamese from the 1940s to the 1980s. An assaulting force that outnumbered defending troops at least 4 to 1 stormed the position continuously, creating endless "waves of people". Heavy artillery pounding the position to rubble usually preceded the assault.
- Liên Khu Duyên Hải = Military territory comprising four coastal provinces: Phú Yên, Khánh HòaKhánh HòaKhánh Hòa may refer to a number of places in Vietnam:*Khanh Hoa Province*Khánh Hòa, An Giang - a commune of An Giang Province...
, Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận - Light Infantry Division = Sư-đoàn Khinh Chiến with 5,245 men was organized to operate in difficult terrains.
- Na San fire-support base = General SalanRaoul SalanRaoul Albin Louis Salan was a French Army general and the fourth French commanding general during the First Indochina War. Salan was one of four generals who organized the 1961 Algiers Putsch operation and then founded the Organisation de l'armée secrète....
's brainchild against GiápVo Nguyen GiapVõ Nguyên Giáp is a retired Vietnamese officer in the Vietnam People’s Army and a politician. He was a principal commander in two wars: the First Indochina War and the Vietnam War...
's forces assaulting the T'ai territory and Upper LaosLaosLaos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
. Located in a valley 20 km south of Son LaSon LaSơn La is a city in northwestern Vietnam. It is the capital of the Son La province....
, the fortified fire-support base was a strategic point set up to cut of Vietminh's troop movements and to defend northwest Tonkin. Na-San had an airstrip that could accommodate the DakotaC-47 SkytrainThe Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft that was developed from the Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II and remained in front line operations through the 1950s with a few remaining in operation to this day.-Design and...
airplanes, had 21 "rings" of outposts with a complicated trench system, enforced with barbed wires. Na-San had a defense force of 11 battalions (15,000 men) and 6 artillery batteries. In December 1952, Giáp's forces failed to capture Na-San after bloody battles that cost the Vietminh close to 5,000 lives and 2,000 wounded prisoners. The French Union forces lost 2 battalions. In his autobiography, Salan credited the superior air-support for the French victory ("sans elle [l'aviation], Na San n'était pas possible et je perdais la bataille du Nord-Ouest" - "Without air-support, Na San would not be possible and I would've lost the Northwest battle"). - Ninh Bình = A province south of the Red River Delta. During the First Indochina War, Ninh Bình, a strategic position and the "rice basket of Tonkin", must be defended at all cost by the Franco-Vietnamese forces.
- Nùng = North Vietnam's ethnic minority of mixed Chinese-T'ai-Vietnamese. They are Chinese-speaking but are classified separately from the urban ethnic Chinese or Hoa. Their language is Cantonese Chinese with some T'ai and Vietnamese vocabularies. Prior to the partition of Vietnam into two countries, the Nungs lived mainly in the northeast areas bordering China. They are known for being a fierce warrior race. For generations, they sided with the French colonial government in exchange for autonomy from the Vietnamese Imperial Court. During the Indochina and the Vietnam Wars, Nungs were on both sides of the conflicts. General Phạm Văn Đồng, a northern Vietnamese who had gained their respect, was considered as one of their own. Đồng spoke the language fluently, accepted their customs and married a Nung from Móng Cái. The actual highest-ranking Nung in the ARVN was Major General Chướng Dzếnh Quay, IV Corps Chief of Staff at the end of the war. On the communist side, Lieutenant General Lê Quang Ðạo was the highest-ranking Nung known during the Indochina and Vietnam Wars.
- Quảng Yên Military Academy (NCO) = Established in 1953 as a military educational institution that prepared candidates for service in the State of Vietnam Army's non-commissioned officer corps.
- Quốc Gia Nghĩa Tử = Ward of the Nation was a brainchild of Lieutenant Colonel Trương Khuê Quan who modeled it after France's "Office des Pupilles de la Nation". This independent agency was formed in October 1963 to provide educational opportunities for war orphans and children of war invalids/disabled veterans. In 1967, the Ministry of War Veterans took over the agency but continued to let it run by an independent management committee. By the end of the Vietnam War, QGNT had seven schools and 4 dormitories with over 200 teachers and an administrative staff close to 300 persons (most of whom were military widows, war disabled veterans and family members of soldiers who had died during the war).
- RMIC = Régiment Mixte d'Infanterie Coloniale (Mixed Colonial Infantry Regiment) consisted of 4 battalions.
- Territoire Militaire = Part of the Tonkin division that had 5 military territories, one of which was the 1er Territoire Militaire based in Móng Cái.
- Việt Cách = Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội (Vietnam Revolutionary Alliance Party) started out in NanjingNanjing' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
as a coalition force of Vietnamese revolutionaries living in China since the late 1930s. Its first governing body consisted of leaders from different parties. By 1944, infighting rendered Việt Cách ineffective and most members went back to their original parties. Those remained with the party rallied around Nguyen Hai ThanNguyen Hai ThanNguyễn Hải Thần , born Nguyễn Văn Thắng in Dai Tu village, Thuong Tin district, Hà Ðông province was a leader of the Việt Nam Cách Mạng Ðồng Minh Hội and a political leader during the Vietnamese Revolution...
. After World War II, party members led by Than and armed by Kuomingtang returned to Vietnam where several of its leaders joined Ho Chi Minh's government. After Ho signed the modus vivendi allowing French troops to re-enter the country, Viet Minh attacked to eliminate all opposition groups (Viet Cach was one). Some of the surviving members went back to China while others remained behind to rally around Bảo Đại. During the Vietnam War, a Viet Cach leader of VNQDD's background Tạ Nguyên Hối was one of General Đồng's political advisers. - Zône = The State of Vietnam was divided into several military zones. In the early years of the country when the central government was new and when French colonial officials were still involved Vietnam's affairs, commanders (commandants) ran their zones any way they wanted to, some to the point of being warlords. The zones in Tonkin were: Northwest Autonomy Zone, Zone North, Zone West, Zone South, Zone Hanoi, Zone Hai Phong and Coastal Zone. Zone South (Zone Sud), the largest and most important, consisted of 3 provinces (Nam Định, Thái BìnhThai BinhThái Bình is a city in the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Thai Binh province. It is located 110 km from Hanoi. The city area is 67.7 square km, with a population of 210,000 people . Before the prime minister declared it a city in June of 2004, it was officially a town....
and Ninh BìnhNinh BìnhNinh Bình is a city in the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam. It is the capital of Ninh Binh province.-Geography:Ninh Binh city located in the southernmost plains north Vietnam...
), Phủ Lý capital town, 4 sectors and 2 quarters (north of south of Sông ĐáyDay RiverThe Day River is a river in Vietnam. It was formerly known as Sông Hát or Hát Giang. The river is a distributary of the Red River, draining into the Gulf of Tonkin....
).
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