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National Liberation Front (Macedonia)
Encyclopedia
The National Liberation Front (abbreviated NOF) , also known as the People's Liberation Front, was a communist political and military organization created by the slavic Macedonian minority in Greece
. The organization operated from 1945–1949, most prominently in the Greek Civil War
. As far as its ruling cadres were concerned its participation in the Greek Civil War was nationalist rather than communist, with the goal of secession from Greece.
in 1912 and 1913, following division of the region of Macedonia amongst the Kingdom of Greece
, the Kingdom of Bulgaria
and the Kingdom of Serbia
. During Ottoman
rule, the Slavic-speaking
population in Macedonia was under the influence of the Bulgarian Exarchate
and the Greek Patriarchate
and their education system, which resulted in the strengthening of Bulgarian, Greek
, and Serb identities among the citizens.
After the Balkan Wars, a new consciousness arrived among the Slavic-speaking population - an ethnic Macedonian one. While the ethnic Macedonian nationalist movement started back in the 19th century, the idea of an ethnic Macedonian conscience and identity gained momentum between the two World Wars, and developed during World War II
when ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of Macedonia. The first revolutionary organization that promoted the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation was IMRO (United), composed of former left-wing Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) members. This idea was backed by the Comintern
, which issued a declaration in 1934 supporting the development of Macedonia as a separate entity and recognizing a Macedonian nationality.This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the Balkan communists, including the Greek Communist Party, which created a Macedonian section within the party headed by Andreas Tsipas
and supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian minority within Greece.
Stathis Kalyvas, professor of History at Princeton University
in his book The Logic of Violence in Civil War
published by Cambridge University Press
notes on that as far as its leading cadres were concerned NOF was a nationalist rather than communist armed group:
in World War II
, resistance movements were created by Greeks
while the collaborationist Ohrana
battalions were constituted from among the Slavophone population. After Greece was occupied by Italy
, Germany
and Bulgaria
, different guerrilla bands and movements were formed across all of northern Greece,. Some of them fought against the occupation, like Napoleon Zervas
and his National Republican Greek League (EDES), while others were collaborationists, like the Ohrana
, many of whom later joined the Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF).There was also the National People's Liberation Army (ELAS), a partisan army headed by the Communist Party of Greece
(KKE). Although ELAS in some cases relied on forced mobilization, the ethnic Macedonians sympathized with ELAS and the KKE because of their friendly position towards the ethnic minorities of Greece
and the fact they had acquiesced to Soviet demands for an independent Macedonian state that would contain most of Northern Greece.
In the book After The war Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation, and State in Greece, 1943-1960 edited by Mark Mazower
and published by Princeton University Press
, it is remarked that:
n people in occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II
and led by Bulgarian officers. Bulgaria was interested in acquiring Thessalonica and Western Macedonia under Axis occupation and hoped to sway the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time. The appearance of Greek partisans in those areas persuaded the Italians to allow the formation of these collaborationst detachments.
Following the defeat of the Axis powers and the evacuation of the Nazi occupation forces many members of the Ohrana joined the SNOF where they could still pursue their goal of secession. According to Jane Cowan there was a rapproachement between the Greek Communist Party and the Ohrana collaborationst units. According to Fritz Voigt further collaboration between the Bulgarian-controlled Ohrana and the EAM-controlled SNOF followed when it was agreed that Greek Macedonia would be allowed to secede. It is estimated that entire Ohrana units had joined the SNOF which began to press the ELAS leadership to allow it autonomous action in Greek Macedonia.
In their book Greece:The Modern Sequel, published by New York University Press Thanos Veremis and John S. Koliopoulos
note:
(KKE). Before the creation of the SNOF, ethnic Macedonian military detachments in Greek Macedonia participated in the National People's Liberation Army.
The main aim of the SNOF was to obtain the support of the local population and to mobilize it, through SNOF, to help the National Liberation Front of Greece (EAM) liberate the country from Axis occupation. As they increased in numbers, the military detachments of the SNOF fought the occupation in Northern Greece and collaborated with units of the KKE. Another tactic of SNOF was to struggle against the Ohrana activity in western Greek Macedonia, and to persuade the Ohrana members to desert their ranks and join the SNOF and support ELAS. SNOF started publishing newspapers and booklets on ethnic Macedonian history and engaged a massive propaganda war against the Ohrana. Just before the liberation of Greece, SNOF operatives managed to convince many former Ohranists to enter the ranks of the SNOF. Some of them later took part in the Greek Civil War
on the side of the Democratic Army of Greece
(DSE) and gave their lives in the struggle. By 1944 the Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front had begun to publish a regular newspaper known as Slavjano-Makedonski Glas
During this time, the ethnic Macedonians in Greece were permitted to publish newspapers in the Macedonian language
and run schools. After the end of the Greek Resistance
against the Axis occupation, the SNOF was dissolved in 1944 on the orders of the KKE Central Committee and through British intervention. Headed by Vangel Ajanovski - Oche
, some SNOF commanders, dissatisfied with the KKE decision, crossed into Vardar Macedonia
and participated in the National Liberation War of Macedonia.
in February 1945, there was no sign of possible political stabilization of the country. The Communist-led forces become isolated from the process, and British
intervention backed the right-wing government formed in Athens
. After the ELAS was partly disarmed, the KKE and its forces concentrated on political struggle. But while the KKE was negotiating and fighting within the political framework, in northern Greece bands of the former Security Battalions
(wartime collaborators) and government forces harassed the ethnic Macedonians, accusing them of autonomist activities.
A number of ethnic Macedonians in Edessa
, Kastoria
and Florina
, Paskal Mitrevski, Mihail Keramidzhiev, Georgi Urdov, Atanas Koroveshov, Pavle Rakovski and Mincho Fotev, decided to form the Narodno Osloboditelen Front (NOF) on 23 April 1945. According to its statute, the NOF’s objectives were: to resist the "Monarchist-Fascist aggressors", to fight for democracy and a Greek Republic, and the physical preservation of the ethnic Macedonian population.
The NOF organised meetings, street and factory protests, and published illegal papers. The ethnic Macedonian KKE members who escaped Greece when the country was liberated started coming back to their homes, and many entered the ranks of NOF. Soon the group began forming partisan detachments. In 1945, 12 were formed in Kastoria, 7 in Florina, and 11 in Edessa and the Gianitsa region. These groups patrolled villages to protect the population. In the second half of 1945, these groups engaged in thirty battles with government forces. The biggest one was near Moglena, where a convoy carrying political prisoners was attacked by NOF. 14 government soldiers were killed, 9 captured and all of the prisoners (ethnic Macedonians and Pontians) were released.
In some villages of Edessa, Pontians served on NOF committees. In Kastoria a lot of Vlachs
were also involved in the NOF, alongside ethnic Macedonians. At first there was a conflict between KKE and NOF. The former wanted a political struggle, while the NOF insisted on an armed struggle. The NOF were convinced that the government would not implement the Varkiza Treaty, while KKE leader Nikos Zachariadis still believed that this represented a chance to deal with the government. Even before the KKE declared the beginning of the armed struggle of the Democratic Army of Greece
in 1946, the NOF was acting independently from the KKE, and engaged in several battles with government forces, who had British support. Thus, the NOF stimulated the beginning of an armed insurrection of the communist forces against the government. The NOF and also created regional committees in all areas with compact ethnic Macedonian populations (Florina, Eddesa, Giannitsa and Kastoria).
. Up to this time more than 100,000 fighters of ELAS and EAM members had been imprisoned with accusations of treason and brutalities against civilians during the fascist occupation. Many ELAS and NOF members created small armed groups based in their former hideouts. Among the areas populated with Slavic speaking population in western Greek Macedonia the NOF became a powerful factor, and the KKE opened negotiations with it. The negotiations were conducted by Mihail Keramitčiev and Paskal Mitrevski
on behalf of the NOF, and Markos Vafiadis
, on behalf of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). After nearly seven months of negotiations, they reached an agreement to merge. In October 1946, KKE founded DSE High Command in Middle Greece. The Capetanios (Military and Political Leader) of DSE was Markos Vafeiadis.
The KKE and the NOF maintained a position on the minorities question in Greece
(the equality of all ethnic groups within the borders of Greece), and NOF was against every form of autonomy. Owing to the KKE's equal treatment of ethnic Macedonians and Greeks, many ethnic Macedonians enlisted as volunteers in the DSE. Αccording to Macedonian sources 60 per cent of the DSE was composed of ethnic Macedonians. This fact is backed by Alexandros Zaouses in his research book Η Τραγική αναμέτρηση, 1945-1949 – Ο μύθος και η αλήθεια, where he states that out of 22,000 fighters, 14,000 were Slavic-Macedonians. This number is confirmed by C. M. Woodhouse in his book "The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949". Ethnic Macedonian partisans were not fighting only in the territory of Greek Macedonia, but also in Thessaly
, Roumelia, and in the battles north of Athens
.
The ethnic Macedonians of Greek Macedonia made a critical contribution to the communist side during the Greek Civil War
. Soon after the first free territories were created, Keramitčiev met with KKE officials, and it was decided that ethnic Macedonian schools would open in the area controlled by the DSE. Books written in the Macedonian language were published, while ethnic Macedonians theatres and cultural organizations operated. Under the auspices of the NOF, a women's organization, the Antifascist Women's Front (AFZH), and a youth organization, the National Liberation Front of Youth (ONOM), were formed.
In Democratic Army of Greece held territory, newspapers and books were published by NOF, public speeches made and the schools opened, helping the consolidation of ethnic Macedonian conscience and identity among the population. According to information announced by Paskal Mitrovski on the I plenum of NOF on August 1948, about 85% of the Slavic-speaking population in Greek Macedonia identified themselves as ethnic Macedonian. The language that was taught in the schools was the official language of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia
. About 20,000 young ethnic Macedonians learned to read and write using that language, and learned their own history.
Ethnic Macedonians fought in the Greek Civil War and made a significant contribution to the initial victories of the DSE. However, when the Tito-Stalin split
arose, Yugoslavia
(and the Socialist Republic of Macedonia) closed its border to the DSE, as both the NOF and the DSE supported the Soviet line. At the beginning of the war Markos Vafiadis had an efficient guerilla strategy, and controlled territories from Florina
to Attica
, and for a short period there were DSE-controlled territories in the Peloponnese
.
The Provisional Government, founded in 1947, was in political and military control of 70% of the mainland (from Evros
to Peloponnese
) and partial control of the mountainous areas and most of the islands. During 1947 and until the spring of 1948, the National Army was mainly barricaded in Athens and other major Greek cities, and held the plains (Thessaly
and Thessaloniki
). DSE was then an army of nearly 40,000 fighters and benefited from a strong network of sympathizers in all rural villages - especially the mountainous areas. Its HQ was in Mount Vitsi
, near the border with Yugoslavia.Two more Area HQs were stationed in Middle Greece (Mount Pindos) and Peloponnese (Mount Taiget).
At the end of the war, nearly 20,000 fighters have been either killed or captured by the National Army after the fighting in Peloponnese. Same situation was encountered in nearly all the islands, and in Thrace. By the beginning of 1949, in the last stage of the war, the Provisional Government was confined to the mountains of Pindos, Grammos, and Vitsi. The DSE was numbered at 22,000 fighters, out of which 14,000 were ethnic Macedonians.
The DSE came under pressure after the British intervened, sending tanks, airplanes and ammunition to the government forces, which were mainly stationed in cities.
From the merger in 1946 until the end of the Civil War, the NOF was loyal to the idea of a unified Greece and was fighting for human rights for all groups within the borders of the Greek republic. But Zachariadis, in order to mobilize more ethnic Macedonians into the DSE, declared on 31 January 1949 at the 5th Meeting of the KKE Central Committee:
This new line of the KKE had an impact on the mobilization rate of ethnic Macedonians (which even earlier was considerably high), but did not manage, ultimately, to change the course of the war. At the battles of Vitsi
and Grammos, in which the government forces deployed napalm
bombs and artillery barrages, the DSE was expelled from Greece. As Yugoslavia had closed its borders to Greece, the evacuation was conducted through Albania
.
Whether as a result of force or of their own accord in order to escape repression and retaliation, some 50,000 civilians left Greece with the retreating DSE forces. All of them went to Eastern Bloc
countries. It was not until the 1970s that some of them were allowed to return to the Socialist Republic of Macedonia
. In the 1980s, the Greek parliament adopted a law of national reconciliation which allowed DSE members "of Greek origin" to repatriate to Greece, where they were given land. Ethnic Macedonian DSE members remained excluded from the terms of this legislation.
On August 20, 2003, the Rainbow Party
hosted a reception for the "child refugees". Ethnic Macedonian children who fled their homes during the Greek Civil War were permitted to enter Greece for a maximum of 20 days. Now elderly, this was the first time many of them had seen their birthplaces and families in some 55 years. The reception included relatives of the refugees who were living in Greece and were members of Rainbow Party. Many were refused entry by Greek border authorities because their passports listed the Slavic-Macedonian names
of their places of birth.
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. The organization operated from 1945–1949, most prominently in the Greek Civil War
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War was fought from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek governmental army, backed by the United Kingdom and United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece , the military branch of the Greek Communist Party , backed by Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania...
. As far as its ruling cadres were concerned its participation in the Greek Civil War was nationalist rather than communist, with the goal of secession from Greece.
Background
The 'Macedonian Question' surfaced after the Balkan WarsBalkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...
in 1912 and 1913, following division of the region of Macedonia amongst the Kingdom of Greece
Kingdom of Greece
The Kingdom of Greece was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great Powers...
, the Kingdom of Bulgaria
Kingdom of Bulgaria
The Kingdom of Bulgaria was established as an independent state when the Principality of Bulgaria, an Ottoman vassal, officially proclaimed itself independent on October 5, 1908 . This move also formalised the annexation of the Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia, which had been under the control...
and the Kingdom of Serbia
Kingdom of Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbia was created when Prince Milan Obrenović, ruler of the Principality of Serbia, was crowned King in 1882. The Principality of Serbia was ruled by the Karađorđevic dynasty from 1817 onwards . The Principality, suzerain to the Porte, had expelled all Ottoman troops by 1867, de...
. During Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
rule, the Slavic-speaking
Slavic languages
The Slavic languages , a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages, have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia.-Branches:Scholars traditionally divide Slavic...
population in Macedonia was under the influence of the Bulgarian Exarchate
Bulgarian Exarchate
The Bulgarian Exarchate was the official name of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church before its autocephaly was recognized by the Ecumenical See in 1945 and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was restored in 1953....
and the Greek Patriarchate
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople , part of the wider Orthodox Church, is one of the fourteen autocephalous churches within the communion of Orthodox Christianity...
and their education system, which resulted in the strengthening of Bulgarian, Greek
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
, and Serb identities among the citizens.
After the Balkan Wars, a new consciousness arrived among the Slavic-speaking population - an ethnic Macedonian one. While the ethnic Macedonian nationalist movement started back in the 19th century, the idea of an ethnic Macedonian conscience and identity gained momentum between the two World Wars, and developed during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
when ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of Macedonia. The first revolutionary organization that promoted the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation was IMRO (United), composed of former left-wing Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) members. This idea was backed by the Comintern
Comintern
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern, also known as the Third International, was an international communist organization initiated in Moscow during March 1919...
, which issued a declaration in 1934 supporting the development of Macedonia as a separate entity and recognizing a Macedonian nationality.This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the Balkan communists, including the Greek Communist Party, which created a Macedonian section within the party headed by Andreas Tsipas
Andreas Tsipas
Andreas Tsipas, , , was a Greek Communist leader during the World War II and Greek Civil War....
and supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian minority within Greece.
Stathis Kalyvas, professor of History at Princeton University
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
in his book The Logic of Violence in Civil War
The Logic of Violence in Civil War
The Logic of Violence in Civil War is a book which challenges the conventional view of violence in civil wars as irrational. The main argument is that violence only emerges in those disputed territories, and it is generally driven not by the conflict itself, but by previous rancors and enmities...
published by Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the world's oldest publishing house, and the second largest university press in the world...
notes on that as far as its leading cadres were concerned NOF was a nationalist rather than communist armed group:
Importantly, however, the nature of the Slav Macedonians’ participation in the Greek Civil War (at least at the elite level) was nationalist rather than Communist. The Communists were convenient allies in a struggle that was supposed to lead to secession from Greece and a merger with the Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.For the NOF “it was primarily a national struggle, a battle for the national liberation of the Macedonians in Aegean Macedonia. (Rossos 1997:42,43-4,64,42).
Occupation of Greece in World War II
While most of Greece was occupied by Axis PowersAxis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, resistance movements were created by Greeks
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
while the collaborationist Ohrana
Ohrana
Ohrana ; were armed collaborationist detachments organized by the former Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization structures, composed of Bulgarian in Nazi-occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II and led by Bulgarian officers. from Macedonia...
battalions were constituted from among the Slavophone population. After Greece was occupied by Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic in Southeast Europe. The country borders Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, as well as the Black Sea to the east...
, different guerrilla bands and movements were formed across all of northern Greece,. Some of them fought against the occupation, like Napoleon Zervas
Napoleon Zervas
Napoleon Zervas was a Greek general and resistance leader during World War II. He organized and led the National Republican Greek League , the second most significant , in terms of size and activity, resistance organization against the Axis Occupation of Greece.-Early life and army career:Zervas...
and his National Republican Greek League (EDES), while others were collaborationists, like the Ohrana
Ohrana
Ohrana ; were armed collaborationist detachments organized by the former Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization structures, composed of Bulgarian in Nazi-occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II and led by Bulgarian officers. from Macedonia...
, many of whom later joined the Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF).There was also the National People's Liberation Army (ELAS), a partisan army headed by the Communist Party of Greece
Communist Party of Greece
Founded in 1918, the Communist Party of Greece , better known by its acronym, ΚΚΕ , is the oldest party on the Greek political scene.- Foundation :...
(KKE). Although ELAS in some cases relied on forced mobilization, the ethnic Macedonians sympathized with ELAS and the KKE because of their friendly position towards the ethnic minorities of Greece
Minorities in Greece
Indigenous minorities in Greece are small in size compared to regional standards. The country is largely ethnically homogeneous. This is mainly due to the population exchanges between Greece and neighboring Turkey and Bulgaria , which removed most Muslims and those Christian Slavs who did not...
and the fact they had acquiesced to Soviet demands for an independent Macedonian state that would contain most of Northern Greece.
In the book After The war Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation, and State in Greece, 1943-1960 edited by Mark Mazower
Mark Mazower
Mark A. Mazower is a British historian. His expertise is Greece, the Balkans and, more generally, 20th century Europe. He is currently a professor of history at Columbia University in New York City.-Career:...
and published by Princeton University Press
Princeton University Press
-Further reading:* "". Artforum International, 2005.-External links:* * * * *...
, it is remarked that:
The testimonies started to grow more complicated and to reveal the true nature of the problem when the witnesses recounted the activities of an accused prisoner during the occupation who, having been a loyal friend of the Bulgarians in the early years of the occupation, would suddenly appear as a member of Slovenomakedonski Narodno Oslobodaekn Front (Slav Macedonian National Liberation Front). These were the Okhranists, armed members of Bulgarian-sponsored units, who were quick to join the Slavic-speaking units officially under the jurisdiction of EAM in order to avoid punishment after the occupation. Some of them even chose to espouse the SNOF manifesto regarding the autonomy of Macedonia. Others seem to have moved on to SNOF after active service with EAM.
Many of the accused had absconded and were tried in absentia. They tended to be either fanatical supporters of the Bulgarian cause who had accompanied the departing Bulgarian troops in October 1944, or autonomists who had managed to flee to Yugoslavia.
Ohrana
The Ohrana were armed collaborationist detachments organized by the Bulgarian army, composed of Slavophone pro-BulgariaBulgaria
Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic in Southeast Europe. The country borders Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, as well as the Black Sea to the east...
n people in occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
and led by Bulgarian officers. Bulgaria was interested in acquiring Thessalonica and Western Macedonia under Axis occupation and hoped to sway the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time. The appearance of Greek partisans in those areas persuaded the Italians to allow the formation of these collaborationst detachments.
Following the defeat of the Axis powers and the evacuation of the Nazi occupation forces many members of the Ohrana joined the SNOF where they could still pursue their goal of secession. According to Jane Cowan there was a rapproachement between the Greek Communist Party and the Ohrana collaborationst units. According to Fritz Voigt further collaboration between the Bulgarian-controlled Ohrana and the EAM-controlled SNOF followed when it was agreed that Greek Macedonia would be allowed to secede. It is estimated that entire Ohrana units had joined the SNOF which began to press the ELAS leadership to allow it autonomous action in Greek Macedonia.
In their book Greece:The Modern Sequel, published by New York University Press Thanos Veremis and John S. Koliopoulos
John S. Koliopoulos
John S. Koliopoulos is a Greek historian, born in 1942.He is the author of Plundered loyalties : Axis occupation and civil strife in Greek West Macedonia, 1941-194, Brigands with a Cause and other books on Greek history, and co-author of Greece: A Modern Sequel with Thanos Veremis, Professor of...
note:
In Western Macedonia the German and Italian Occupation authorities gave the exponents of the Bulgarian cause a free hand in their policy of intimidating the local population. Greek resistance forces were faced with the double task of facing both the occupying army and the Bulgarian fascist Ohrana paramilitary forces. In 1943 at a meeting between Yugoslav and Greek partisans Tito’s representative used the term “Macedonian nationals” for the first time and asked for the cooperation of EAM-ELAS to win Bulgarian collaborators back to the Macedonian ideological camp. Throughout the war period ELAS resisted Yugoslav pressure to allow the “Slav Macedonian National Liberation Front” to form separate ranks and pursue its own policy in Greek Macedonia.
Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front
The first ethnic Macedonian armed military organization, the Slavomacedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF) ), was established in 1943 by ethnic Macedonian members of the Communist Party of GreeceCommunist Party of Greece
Founded in 1918, the Communist Party of Greece , better known by its acronym, ΚΚΕ , is the oldest party on the Greek political scene.- Foundation :...
(KKE). Before the creation of the SNOF, ethnic Macedonian military detachments in Greek Macedonia participated in the National People's Liberation Army.
The main aim of the SNOF was to obtain the support of the local population and to mobilize it, through SNOF, to help the National Liberation Front of Greece (EAM) liberate the country from Axis occupation. As they increased in numbers, the military detachments of the SNOF fought the occupation in Northern Greece and collaborated with units of the KKE. Another tactic of SNOF was to struggle against the Ohrana activity in western Greek Macedonia, and to persuade the Ohrana members to desert their ranks and join the SNOF and support ELAS. SNOF started publishing newspapers and booklets on ethnic Macedonian history and engaged a massive propaganda war against the Ohrana. Just before the liberation of Greece, SNOF operatives managed to convince many former Ohranists to enter the ranks of the SNOF. Some of them later took part in the Greek Civil War
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War was fought from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek governmental army, backed by the United Kingdom and United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece , the military branch of the Greek Communist Party , backed by Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania...
on the side of the Democratic Army of Greece
Democratic Army of Greece
This article is based on a translation of an article from the Greek Wikipedia.The Democratic Army of Greece , often simply abbreviated to its initials DSE , was the army founded by the Communist Party of Greece during the Greek Civil War, 1946–1949...
(DSE) and gave their lives in the struggle. By 1944 the Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front had begun to publish a regular newspaper known as Slavjano-Makedonski Glas
During this time, the ethnic Macedonians in Greece were permitted to publish newspapers in the Macedonian language
Macedonian language
Macedonian is a South Slavic language spoken as a first language by approximately 2–3 million people principally in the region of Macedonia but also in the Macedonian diaspora...
and run schools. After the end of the Greek Resistance
Greek Resistance
The Greek Resistance is the blanket term for a number of armed and unarmed groups from across the political spectrum that resisted the Axis Occupation of Greece in the period 1941–1944, during World War II.-Origins:...
against the Axis occupation, the SNOF was dissolved in 1944 on the orders of the KKE Central Committee and through British intervention. Headed by Vangel Ajanovski - Oche
Vangel Ajanovski - Oche
Vangel Ajanovski-Oče was the initiator and leader of Macedonian national organizations such as the Macedonia Antifascist Organization and the Secret Macedonian Organization for Liberation...
, some SNOF commanders, dissatisfied with the KKE decision, crossed into Vardar Macedonia
Vardar Macedonia
Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...
and participated in the National Liberation War of Macedonia.
Foundation of NOF and first actions
After the liberation of Greece and the signing of the Treaty of VarkizaTreaty of Varkiza
The Treaty of Varkiza was signed in Varkiza on February 12, 1945 between the Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece for EAM-ELAS...
in February 1945, there was no sign of possible political stabilization of the country. The Communist-led forces become isolated from the process, and British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
intervention backed the right-wing government formed in Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
. After the ELAS was partly disarmed, the KKE and its forces concentrated on political struggle. But while the KKE was negotiating and fighting within the political framework, in northern Greece bands of the former Security Battalions
Security Battalions
The Security Battalions were Greek collaborationist military groups, formed during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II in order to support the German occupation troops.- History :...
(wartime collaborators) and government forces harassed the ethnic Macedonians, accusing them of autonomist activities.
Edessa, Greece
Edessa , is a city in northern Greece and the capital of the Pella regional unit, in the Central Macedonia region of Greece. It was also the capital of the defunct province of the same name.-Name:...
, Kastoria
Kastoria
Kastoria is a city in northern Greece in the periphery of West Macedonia. It is the capital of Kastoria peripheral unit. It is situated on a promontory on the western shore of Lake Orestiada, in a valley surrounded by limestone mountains...
and Florina
Florina
Florina is a town and municipality in mountainous northwestern Macedonia, Greece. Its motto is, 'Where Greece begins'. It is also the Metropolitan seat for the region. It lies in the central part of Florina peripheral unit, of which it is the capital. Florina belongs to the periphery of West...
, Paskal Mitrevski, Mihail Keramidzhiev, Georgi Urdov, Atanas Koroveshov, Pavle Rakovski and Mincho Fotev, decided to form the Narodno Osloboditelen Front (NOF) on 23 April 1945. According to its statute, the NOF’s objectives were: to resist the "Monarchist-Fascist aggressors", to fight for democracy and a Greek Republic, and the physical preservation of the ethnic Macedonian population.
The NOF organised meetings, street and factory protests, and published illegal papers. The ethnic Macedonian KKE members who escaped Greece when the country was liberated started coming back to their homes, and many entered the ranks of NOF. Soon the group began forming partisan detachments. In 1945, 12 were formed in Kastoria, 7 in Florina, and 11 in Edessa and the Gianitsa region. These groups patrolled villages to protect the population. In the second half of 1945, these groups engaged in thirty battles with government forces. The biggest one was near Moglena, where a convoy carrying political prisoners was attacked by NOF. 14 government soldiers were killed, 9 captured and all of the prisoners (ethnic Macedonians and Pontians) were released.
Vlachs
Vlach is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. English variations on the name include: Walla, Wlachs, Wallachs, Vlahs, Olahs or Ulahs...
were also involved in the NOF, alongside ethnic Macedonians. At first there was a conflict between KKE and NOF. The former wanted a political struggle, while the NOF insisted on an armed struggle. The NOF were convinced that the government would not implement the Varkiza Treaty, while KKE leader Nikos Zachariadis still believed that this represented a chance to deal with the government. Even before the KKE declared the beginning of the armed struggle of the Democratic Army of Greece
Democratic Army of Greece
This article is based on a translation of an article from the Greek Wikipedia.The Democratic Army of Greece , often simply abbreviated to its initials DSE , was the army founded by the Communist Party of Greece during the Greek Civil War, 1946–1949...
in 1946, the NOF was acting independently from the KKE, and engaged in several battles with government forces, who had British support. Thus, the NOF stimulated the beginning of an armed insurrection of the communist forces against the government. The NOF and also created regional committees in all areas with compact ethnic Macedonian populations (Florina, Eddesa, Giannitsa and Kastoria).
The merger of the NOF with the Democratic Army
KKE was trying to avoid the Civil War until after the elections of 1946Greek legislative election, 1946
These elections were marked by:* The marked abstention of voters, caused by the abstention of Communist Party of Greece, and the effects of the civil war , because of which many citizens either could not or chose not to vote....
. Up to this time more than 100,000 fighters of ELAS and EAM members had been imprisoned with accusations of treason and brutalities against civilians during the fascist occupation. Many ELAS and NOF members created small armed groups based in their former hideouts. Among the areas populated with Slavic speaking population in western Greek Macedonia the NOF became a powerful factor, and the KKE opened negotiations with it. The negotiations were conducted by Mihail Keramitčiev and Paskal Mitrevski
Paskal Mitrevski
Paskal Mitrevski , also known as Paskal Mitrovski or Paschalis Mitropoulos, was a Greek-born partisan from the Greek province of Macedonia and former President of the Macedonian National Liberation Front....
on behalf of the NOF, and Markos Vafiadis
Markos Vafiadis
Markos Vafiadis ]], Ottoman Empire, 1906 – Athens, Greece, February 23, 1992) was a leading figure of the Communist Party of Greece during the Greek Civil War.-Pre-war life:...
, on behalf of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). After nearly seven months of negotiations, they reached an agreement to merge. In October 1946, KKE founded DSE High Command in Middle Greece. The Capetanios (Military and Political Leader) of DSE was Markos Vafeiadis.
The KKE and the NOF maintained a position on the minorities question in Greece
Minorities in Greece
Indigenous minorities in Greece are small in size compared to regional standards. The country is largely ethnically homogeneous. This is mainly due to the population exchanges between Greece and neighboring Turkey and Bulgaria , which removed most Muslims and those Christian Slavs who did not...
(the equality of all ethnic groups within the borders of Greece), and NOF was against every form of autonomy. Owing to the KKE's equal treatment of ethnic Macedonians and Greeks, many ethnic Macedonians enlisted as volunteers in the DSE. Αccording to Macedonian sources 60 per cent of the DSE was composed of ethnic Macedonians. This fact is backed by Alexandros Zaouses in his research book Η Τραγική αναμέτρηση, 1945-1949 – Ο μύθος και η αλήθεια, where he states that out of 22,000 fighters, 14,000 were Slavic-Macedonians. This number is confirmed by C. M. Woodhouse in his book "The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949". Ethnic Macedonian partisans were not fighting only in the territory of Greek Macedonia, but also in Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, Roumelia, and in the battles north of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
.
Ethnic Macedonians and the Greek Civil War
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War was fought from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek governmental army, backed by the United Kingdom and United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece , the military branch of the Greek Communist Party , backed by Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania...
. Soon after the first free territories were created, Keramitčiev met with KKE officials, and it was decided that ethnic Macedonian schools would open in the area controlled by the DSE. Books written in the Macedonian language were published, while ethnic Macedonians theatres and cultural organizations operated. Under the auspices of the NOF, a women's organization, the Antifascist Women's Front (AFZH), and a youth organization, the National Liberation Front of Youth (ONOM), were formed.
In Democratic Army of Greece held territory, newspapers and books were published by NOF, public speeches made and the schools opened, helping the consolidation of ethnic Macedonian conscience and identity among the population. According to information announced by Paskal Mitrovski on the I plenum of NOF on August 1948, about 85% of the Slavic-speaking population in Greek Macedonia identified themselves as ethnic Macedonian. The language that was taught in the schools was the official language of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia
Socialist Republic of Macedonia
The Socialist Republic of Macedonia was a socialist state that was a constituent country of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia...
. About 20,000 young ethnic Macedonians learned to read and write using that language, and learned their own history.
Ethnic Macedonians fought in the Greek Civil War and made a significant contribution to the initial victories of the DSE. However, when the Tito-Stalin split
Tito-Stalin Split
The Tito–Stalin Split was a conflict between the leaders of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which resulted in Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Communist Information Bureau in 1948...
arose, Yugoslavia
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was the Yugoslav state that existed from the abolition of the Yugoslav monarchy until it was dissolved in 1992 amid the Yugoslav Wars. It was a socialist state and a federation made up of six socialist republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,...
(and the Socialist Republic of Macedonia) closed its border to the DSE, as both the NOF and the DSE supported the Soviet line. At the beginning of the war Markos Vafiadis had an efficient guerilla strategy, and controlled territories from Florina
Florina
Florina is a town and municipality in mountainous northwestern Macedonia, Greece. Its motto is, 'Where Greece begins'. It is also the Metropolitan seat for the region. It lies in the central part of Florina peripheral unit, of which it is the capital. Florina belongs to the periphery of West...
to Attica
Attica
Attica is a historical region of Greece, containing Athens, the current capital of Greece. The historical region is centered on the Attic peninsula, which projects into the Aegean Sea...
, and for a short period there were DSE-controlled territories in the Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
.
The Provisional Government, founded in 1947, was in political and military control of 70% of the mainland (from Evros
Evros
Evros is:* the Greek name of the Maritsa river running through Bulgaria and forming the land border between Turkey and Greece* Evros , an administrative division in northern Greece...
to Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
) and partial control of the mountainous areas and most of the islands. During 1947 and until the spring of 1948, the National Army was mainly barricaded in Athens and other major Greek cities, and held the plains (Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
and Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki , historically also known as Thessalonica, Salonika or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the region of Central Macedonia as well as the capital of the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace...
). DSE was then an army of nearly 40,000 fighters and benefited from a strong network of sympathizers in all rural villages - especially the mountainous areas. Its HQ was in Mount Vitsi
Vitsi
Vitsi is a former municipality in Kastoria peripheral unit, West Macedonia, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Kastoria, of which it is a municipal unit. It takes its name from Mount Vitsi which is the highest point within the municipal unit. The...
, near the border with Yugoslavia.Two more Area HQs were stationed in Middle Greece (Mount Pindos) and Peloponnese (Mount Taiget).
At the end of the war, nearly 20,000 fighters have been either killed or captured by the National Army after the fighting in Peloponnese. Same situation was encountered in nearly all the islands, and in Thrace. By the beginning of 1949, in the last stage of the war, the Provisional Government was confined to the mountains of Pindos, Grammos, and Vitsi. The DSE was numbered at 22,000 fighters, out of which 14,000 were ethnic Macedonians.
The DSE came under pressure after the British intervened, sending tanks, airplanes and ammunition to the government forces, which were mainly stationed in cities.
The defeat of the Democratic Army
The DSE, whose soldiers were armed mainly with light arms and had little heavy weaponry, started losing ground as a result of the heavy aerial bombardment, artillery barrages and tank attacks. In August 1948, Vafiadis was removed from the position of DSE commander-in-chief and was replaced by Nikos Zachariadis, who changed the whole command cadre to party members with no combat experience. This decision accelerated the decline of the DSE.From the merger in 1946 until the end of the Civil War, the NOF was loyal to the idea of a unified Greece and was fighting for human rights for all groups within the borders of the Greek republic. But Zachariadis, in order to mobilize more ethnic Macedonians into the DSE, declared on 31 January 1949 at the 5th Meeting of the KKE Central Committee:
This new line of the KKE had an impact on the mobilization rate of ethnic Macedonians (which even earlier was considerably high), but did not manage, ultimately, to change the course of the war. At the battles of Vitsi
Vitsi
Vitsi is a former municipality in Kastoria peripheral unit, West Macedonia, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Kastoria, of which it is a municipal unit. It takes its name from Mount Vitsi which is the highest point within the municipal unit. The...
and Grammos, in which the government forces deployed napalm
Napalm
Napalm is a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with gasoline or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, primarily as an anti-personnel weapon...
bombs and artillery barrages, the DSE was expelled from Greece. As Yugoslavia had closed its borders to Greece, the evacuation was conducted through Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
.
The exodus of ethnic Macedonians from Greece
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
countries. It was not until the 1970s that some of them were allowed to return to the Socialist Republic of Macedonia
Socialist Republic of Macedonia
The Socialist Republic of Macedonia was a socialist state that was a constituent country of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia...
. In the 1980s, the Greek parliament adopted a law of national reconciliation which allowed DSE members "of Greek origin" to repatriate to Greece, where they were given land. Ethnic Macedonian DSE members remained excluded from the terms of this legislation.
On August 20, 2003, the Rainbow Party
Rainbow (political party)
The Rainbow is a political party in Greece, and a member of the European Free Alliance. It is known for its activism amongst what it regards as the Ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece and their descendants abroad...
hosted a reception for the "child refugees". Ethnic Macedonian children who fled their homes during the Greek Civil War were permitted to enter Greece for a maximum of 20 days. Now elderly, this was the first time many of them had seen their birthplaces and families in some 55 years. The reception included relatives of the refugees who were living in Greece and were members of Rainbow Party. Many were refused entry by Greek border authorities because their passports listed the Slavic-Macedonian names
Former toponyms of Greek places
Many settlements in Greece had Greek and non-Greek forms. Most of those names were in use during the multinational environment of the Ottoman Empire. Some of the forms were identifiably of Greek origin, others of Slavic, yet others of Turkish, Vlach or Albanian origin...
of their places of birth.
See also
- Macedonians (ethnic group)Macedonians (ethnic group)The Macedonians also referred to as Macedonian Slavs: "... the term Slavomacedonian was introduced and was accepted by the community itself, which at the time had a much more widespread non-Greek Macedonian ethnic consciousness...
- Aegean MacedoniansAegean MacedoniansSlavic speakers are a linguistic minority population in the northern Greek region of Macedonia who are mostly concentrated in certain parts of the peripheries of West and Central Macedonia, adjacent to the territory of the Republic of Macedonia. A smaller group exists in East Macedonia adjacent to...
- Macedonian Question
- National Liberation War of Macedonia
- Greek Civil WarGreek Civil WarThe Greek Civil War was fought from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek governmental army, backed by the United Kingdom and United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece , the military branch of the Greek Communist Party , backed by Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania...
- OhranaOhranaOhrana ; were armed collaborationist detachments organized by the former Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization structures, composed of Bulgarian in Nazi-occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II and led by Bulgarian officers. from Macedonia...
- Minorities in GreeceMinorities in GreeceIndigenous minorities in Greece are small in size compared to regional standards. The country is largely ethnically homogeneous. This is mainly due to the population exchanges between Greece and neighboring Turkey and Bulgaria , which removed most Muslims and those Christian Slavs who did not...
External links
- Incompatible Allies: Greek Communism and Macedonian Nationalism in the Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949 by Andrew Rossos -The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 69, No. 1 (Mar., 1997), pp. 42–76.