Nathaniel William Taylor
Encyclopedia
Nathaniel William Taylor (1786–1858) was an influential Protestant Theologian of the early 19th century, whose major contribution to the Christian faith (and to American religious history), known as the New Haven theology, was to modify historical Calvinism
in order to fit into the religious revivalism of the time (The Second Great Awakening
).
, Taylor entered Yale University
when only 14 (1800) but could not graduate until 1807 because of an eye problem. While studying there, Taylor was heavily influenced by the revivalist president of Yale, Timothy Dwight
(grandson of Jonathan Edwards). In the years after his graduation, Taylor studied theology
, worked as Dwight's secretary, and, after ordination
, became the minister of the First Church of New Haven in 1812.
While Taylor himself was not an evangelist
, his sympathy for revivalism during a time when revivals were breaking out ensured that he had a major influence upon the core beliefs of revivalists and the churches that were created from them.
The Second Great Awakening
, despite its scope and power, was opposed by the more established church, especially Episcopalians and "Old Calvinists
", but also the growing Unitarian
movement. After Taylor had been appointed Professor of Didactic Theology at Yale in 1822, he used his influence to publicly support the revivalist movement and defend its beliefs and practices against opponents.
The result of this was that Taylor repudiated Calvinistic Determinism
- the idea that the works of God alone are responsible for all activities in the universe. He did this to preserve the ideal of human freedom
, mainly because he believed that determinism contradicted freedom and was thus immoral. Since God could not be immoral, then Determinism could not be possible for a loving, perfect Deity.
The repudiation of determinism was followed by further changes to Calvinistic doctrines such as Revelation
, Human Depravity
, God's Sovereignty
, Christ's Atonement and Regeneration. Both Taylor and Dwight are credited with the creation of "New Haven Theology", which appealed to both Congregationalists and New School Presbyterians and who found traditional Calvinism difficult to embrace.
Naturally, both Taylor and New Haven Theology were vigorously opposed by Old Calvinists, especially Charles Hodge
from Princeton Seminary. Taylor's modification of Calvinism not only drew their ire, but prompted many of them to declare that Taylor's system was not Calvinism at all, but Arminian and even Pelagian.
, the best known and most effective evangelist during the Second Great Awakening. While it would certainly not be accurate to say that "Taylor's theology was preached in Finney's ministry", both men came to prominence at about the same time and a comparison of the written works of both men shows much in common, especially in the areas that differed with "Old Calvinism". Much of Taylor's theology (described below) is similar to that preached by Finney.
Taylor, however, was never a proponent of "perfectionism" - the belief that it was possible (and therefore desirable) for Christians to live a sinless and obedient life. While Finney's influence in revivalism was important, it was Taylor and the New Haven theology that prevailed in New England churches.
: All men are lost but Adam's sin was not imputed to anyone. Although a person sins, they have power to choose not to. A sinner is therefore morally responsible for their own sin, rather than being enslaved by the sin of Adam - they are able to choose the right path.
God's Sovereignty
: God does not determine the destiny of all men through election
, nor does he determine the events of our world. Instead he has created a moral universe and will judge its inhabitants. "God promotes moral action by a system of means and ends in which man can respond to ethical appeals for repentance." (Hoffecker)
The Atonement: Taylor repudiated the view that Christ died upon the cross as a direct sin sacrifice for the sins of Christians. Instead, he taught that Christ's death is the means by which God can urge sinners to freely turn from their sin and be converted, especially when presented with the benefits and privileges that a godly life can bestow upon them.
A note on "Self Love" - the term used by Taylor to denote a natural part of man's being, whereby a person has a natural desire for happiness that motivates all choices and which will manifest itself in Godly repentance
when given the opportunity. This is based on the belief that the Christian life, if understood, would be so attractive, wonderful and beneficial for the person that his or her natural inclination would be to convert, something within his or her power to do according to this theology.
. Even today, many Calvinists, when confronted with Taylor's teachings, will conclude that he had departed from the true Christian faith. Those who held to Taylor's beliefs, including, most notably, Charles Finney, were similarly heterodox.
At the heart of this objection is Taylor's view of the atonement. Many Christians believe that Christ's death upon the cross was as a sin-substitute, whereby the sins of mankind were imputed to Christ, who was tortured and killed in our place. Christ's righteousness, or his perfection, was then imputed to all believers. For many Christians, this belief is the cornerstone of the Christian faith. Yet Taylor explicitly denied this view.
Within the Congregational church at the time, a theological split occurred between those who advocated New Haven theology and those who adhered to more conservative beliefs. Bennett Tyler led this split against Taylor and set up The East Windsor Theological Seminary in opposition to the New Haven theology espoused by Taylor at Yale. Though less in disagreement with the teachings of Samuel Hopkins
, Tyler and his followers vigorously opposed what they perceived to be serious errors in New Haven thinking.
At the time, such objections to Taylor's theology were considered an attack upon a part of the revivalist movement. Thus the "enemy" of revivalism was understood to be the established churches, especially those that embraced and taught strict Calvinism. It was perhaps this situation that led to many revivalist movements (and later Fundamentalist movements) being separated from confessional and Calvinist churches - thus solidifying Arminian belief.
While this may seem a harsh judgement - especially considering Taylor's support of revivalism and the ensuing "conversion" experience that accompanies it - the fact was that Taylor and other proponents of New Haven theology had deliberately abandoned teachings that were, up to that time, considered an essential part of traditional Christian Theology. By questioning and abandoning these beliefs, an historical precedent was made which allowed future generations to be more influenced by teachings which went further in denying other orthodox teachings.
It is certainly true that mainline Protestant denominations that have been historically dominated by Liberal Christianity
have declined in number and influence over time. New England Congregationalism, influenced by Taylor's rejection of "Old Calvinism", eventually embraced Liberal theology. Unlike the Southern Baptist Church, however, there was no Fundamentalist reaction to this - which explains why today one of America's most historically significant church groups is no longer a dominant force in American Christianity.
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
in order to fit into the religious revivalism of the time (The Second Great Awakening
Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening was a Christian revival movement during the early 19th century in the United States. The movement began around 1800, had begun to gain momentum by 1820, and was in decline by 1870. The Second Great Awakening expressed Arminian theology, by which every person could be...
).
Life and Ministry
Born in 1786 to a rich and religious family in ConnecticutConnecticut
Connecticut is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, and the state of New York to the west and the south .Connecticut is named for the Connecticut River, the major U.S. river that approximately...
, Taylor entered Yale University
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
when only 14 (1800) but could not graduate until 1807 because of an eye problem. While studying there, Taylor was heavily influenced by the revivalist president of Yale, Timothy Dwight
Timothy Dwight IV
Timothy Dwight was an American academic and educator, a Congregationalist minister, theologian, and author...
(grandson of Jonathan Edwards). In the years after his graduation, Taylor studied theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, worked as Dwight's secretary, and, after ordination
Ordination
In general religious use, ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart as clergy to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination itself varies by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is...
, became the minister of the First Church of New Haven in 1812.
While Taylor himself was not an evangelist
Evangelism
Evangelism refers to the practice of relaying information about a particular set of beliefs to others who do not hold those beliefs. The term is often used in reference to Christianity....
, his sympathy for revivalism during a time when revivals were breaking out ensured that he had a major influence upon the core beliefs of revivalists and the churches that were created from them.
The Second Great Awakening
Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening was a Christian revival movement during the early 19th century in the United States. The movement began around 1800, had begun to gain momentum by 1820, and was in decline by 1870. The Second Great Awakening expressed Arminian theology, by which every person could be...
, despite its scope and power, was opposed by the more established church, especially Episcopalians and "Old Calvinists
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
", but also the growing Unitarian
Unitarianism
Unitarianism is a Christian theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one in being....
movement. After Taylor had been appointed Professor of Didactic Theology at Yale in 1822, he used his influence to publicly support the revivalist movement and defend its beliefs and practices against opponents.
The result of this was that Taylor repudiated Calvinistic Determinism
Determinism
Determinism is the general philosophical thesis that states that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen. There are many versions of this thesis. Each of them rests upon various alleged connections, and interdependencies of things and...
- the idea that the works of God alone are responsible for all activities in the universe. He did this to preserve the ideal of human freedom
Freedom (political)
Political freedom is a central philosophy in Western history and political thought, and one of the most important features of democratic societies...
, mainly because he believed that determinism contradicted freedom and was thus immoral. Since God could not be immoral, then Determinism could not be possible for a loving, perfect Deity.
The repudiation of determinism was followed by further changes to Calvinistic doctrines such as Revelation
Revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing, through active or passive communication with a supernatural or a divine entity...
, Human Depravity
Original sin
Original sin is, according to a Christian theological doctrine, humanity's state of sin resulting from the Fall of Man. This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred...
, God's Sovereignty
Predestination
Predestination, in theology is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God. John Calvin interpreted biblical predestination to mean that God willed eternal damnation for some people and salvation for others...
, Christ's Atonement and Regeneration. Both Taylor and Dwight are credited with the creation of "New Haven Theology", which appealed to both Congregationalists and New School Presbyterians and who found traditional Calvinism difficult to embrace.
Naturally, both Taylor and New Haven Theology were vigorously opposed by Old Calvinists, especially Charles Hodge
Charles Hodge
Charles Hodge was the principal of Princeton Theological Seminary between 1851 and 1878. A Presbyterian theologian, he was a leading exponent of historical Calvinism in America during the 19th century. He was deeply rooted in the Scottish philosophy of Common Sense Realism...
from Princeton Seminary. Taylor's modification of Calvinism not only drew their ire, but prompted many of them to declare that Taylor's system was not Calvinism at all, but Arminian and even Pelagian.
Charles Finney
Taylor's influence is important when examining the ministry of Charles Grandison FinneyCharles Grandison Finney
Charles Grandison Finney was a leader in the Second Great Awakening. He has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism. Finney was best known as an innovative revivalist, an opponent of Old School Presbyterian theology, an advocate of Christian perfectionism, a pioneer in social reforms in favor...
, the best known and most effective evangelist during the Second Great Awakening. While it would certainly not be accurate to say that "Taylor's theology was preached in Finney's ministry", both men came to prominence at about the same time and a comparison of the written works of both men shows much in common, especially in the areas that differed with "Old Calvinism". Much of Taylor's theology (described below) is similar to that preached by Finney.
Taylor, however, was never a proponent of "perfectionism" - the belief that it was possible (and therefore desirable) for Christians to live a sinless and obedient life. While Finney's influence in revivalism was important, it was Taylor and the New Haven theology that prevailed in New England churches.
A Summary of Taylor's Theology
Original SinOriginal sin
Original sin is, according to a Christian theological doctrine, humanity's state of sin resulting from the Fall of Man. This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred...
: All men are lost but Adam's sin was not imputed to anyone. Although a person sins, they have power to choose not to. A sinner is therefore morally responsible for their own sin, rather than being enslaved by the sin of Adam - they are able to choose the right path.
God's Sovereignty
Predestination
Predestination, in theology is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God. John Calvin interpreted biblical predestination to mean that God willed eternal damnation for some people and salvation for others...
: God does not determine the destiny of all men through election
Election
An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy operates since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the...
, nor does he determine the events of our world. Instead he has created a moral universe and will judge its inhabitants. "God promotes moral action by a system of means and ends in which man can respond to ethical appeals for repentance." (Hoffecker)
The Atonement: Taylor repudiated the view that Christ died upon the cross as a direct sin sacrifice for the sins of Christians. Instead, he taught that Christ's death is the means by which God can urge sinners to freely turn from their sin and be converted, especially when presented with the benefits and privileges that a godly life can bestow upon them.
A note on "Self Love" - the term used by Taylor to denote a natural part of man's being, whereby a person has a natural desire for happiness that motivates all choices and which will manifest itself in Godly repentance
Repentance
Repentance is a change of thought to correct a wrong and gain forgiveness from a person who is wronged. In religious contexts it usually refers to confession to God, ceasing sin against God, and resolving to live according to religious law...
when given the opportunity. This is based on the belief that the Christian life, if understood, would be so attractive, wonderful and beneficial for the person that his or her natural inclination would be to convert, something within his or her power to do according to this theology.
"Old Calvinist" objections to Taylor's teachings
Hodge and others felt that Taylor's teachings were so seriously wrong that they were not so much Arminian, but Pelagian in character. In practical terms, traditional Calvinists have not only rejected Taylor's teachings as erroneous, but also hereticalHeresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
. Even today, many Calvinists, when confronted with Taylor's teachings, will conclude that he had departed from the true Christian faith. Those who held to Taylor's beliefs, including, most notably, Charles Finney, were similarly heterodox.
At the heart of this objection is Taylor's view of the atonement. Many Christians believe that Christ's death upon the cross was as a sin-substitute, whereby the sins of mankind were imputed to Christ, who was tortured and killed in our place. Christ's righteousness, or his perfection, was then imputed to all believers. For many Christians, this belief is the cornerstone of the Christian faith. Yet Taylor explicitly denied this view.
Within the Congregational church at the time, a theological split occurred between those who advocated New Haven theology and those who adhered to more conservative beliefs. Bennett Tyler led this split against Taylor and set up The East Windsor Theological Seminary in opposition to the New Haven theology espoused by Taylor at Yale. Though less in disagreement with the teachings of Samuel Hopkins
Samuel Hopkins (clergyman)
Samuel Hopkins was an American Congregationalist, theologian of the late colonial era of the United States, and from whom the Hopkinsian theology takes its name.-Early life:...
, Tyler and his followers vigorously opposed what they perceived to be serious errors in New Haven thinking.
At the time, such objections to Taylor's theology were considered an attack upon a part of the revivalist movement. Thus the "enemy" of revivalism was understood to be the established churches, especially those that embraced and taught strict Calvinism. It was perhaps this situation that led to many revivalist movements (and later Fundamentalist movements) being separated from confessional and Calvinist churches - thus solidifying Arminian belief.
Taylor and the Decline of New England Congregationalism
It has been argued that the New Haven theology advocated by Taylor (and others) led to the New England Congregational churches being more open and amenable to the theological liberalism that influenced many mainline denominations in the late 19th century - an influence that is still being felt today.While this may seem a harsh judgement - especially considering Taylor's support of revivalism and the ensuing "conversion" experience that accompanies it - the fact was that Taylor and other proponents of New Haven theology had deliberately abandoned teachings that were, up to that time, considered an essential part of traditional Christian Theology. By questioning and abandoning these beliefs, an historical precedent was made which allowed future generations to be more influenced by teachings which went further in denying other orthodox teachings.
It is certainly true that mainline Protestant denominations that have been historically dominated by Liberal Christianity
Liberal Christianity
Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term covering diverse, philosophically and biblically informed religious movements and ideas within Christianity from the late 18th century and onward...
have declined in number and influence over time. New England Congregationalism, influenced by Taylor's rejection of "Old Calvinism", eventually embraced Liberal theology. Unlike the Southern Baptist Church, however, there was no Fundamentalist reaction to this - which explains why today one of America's most historically significant church groups is no longer a dominant force in American Christianity.