Nanoelectronics
Encyclopedia
Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology
on electronic
components, especially transistors. Although the term nanotechnology is generally defined as utilizing technology less than 100 nm in size, nanoelectronics often refer to transistor devices that are so small that inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical
properties need to be studied extensively. As a result, present transistors do not fall under this category, even though these devices are manufactured with 45 nm
, 32 nm
, or 22 nm
technology.
Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as disruptive technology
because present candidates are significantly different from traditional transistors. Some of these candidates include: hybrid molecular/semiconductor
electronics, one dimensional nanotubes/nanowire
s, or advanced molecular electronics
.
observed that silicon transistors were undergoing a continual process of scaling downward, an observation which was later codified as Moore's law
. Since his observation transistor minimum feature sizes have decreased from 10 micrometers to the 28-22 nm range in 2011. The field of nanoelectronics aims to enable the continued realization of this law by using new methods and materials to build electronic devices with feature sizes on the nanoscale.
The volume
of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but the surface area
only decreases as its second power. This somewhat subtle and unavoidable principle has huge ramifications. For example the power
of a drill
(or any other machine) is proportional to the volume, while the friction
of the drill's bearings
and gear
s is proportional to their surface area. For a normal-sized drill, the power of the device is enough to handily overcome any friction. However, scaling its length down by a factor of 1000, for example, decreases its power by 10003 (a factor of a billion) while reducing the friction by only 10002 (a factor of "only" a million). Proportionally it has 1000 times less power per unit friction than the original drill. If the original friction-to-power ratio was, say, 1%, that implies the smaller drill will have 10 times as much friction as power. The drill is useless.
For this reason, while super-miniature electronic integrated circuit
s are fully functional, the same technology cannot be used to make working mechanical devices beyond the scales where frictional forces start to exceed the available power. So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications, for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of "micro factory"
impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in working cilia
, flagella
, muscle fibers and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale. These machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a propeller which depends on normal frictional forces (the frictional forces perpendicular to the surface) to achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces (frictional forces parallel to the surface) present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones.
All scaling issues therefore need to be assessed thoroughly when evaluating nanotechnology for practical applications.
also fall under this category.
Nanofabrication can be used to construct ultradense parallel arrays of nanowire
s, as an alternative to synthesizing nanowires individually.
allows a higher electron mobility
(faster electron movement in the material), a higher dielectric
constant (faster frequency), and a symmetrical electron
/hole
characteristic.
Also, nanoparticle
s can be used as quantum dots.
, designing the device components to construct a larger structure or even a complete system on their own. This can be very useful for reconfigurable computing
, and may even completely replace present FPGA
technology.
Molecular electronics is a new technology which is still in its infancy, but also brings hope for truly atomic scale electronic systems in the future. One of the more promising applications of molecular electronics was proposed by the IBM researcher Ari Aviram and the theoretical chemist Mark Ratner
in their 1974 and 1988 papers Molecules for Memory, Logic and Amplification, (see Unimolecular rectifier).
This is one of many possible ways in which a molecular level diode / transistor might be synthesized by organic chemistry.
A model system was proposed with a spiro carbon structure giving a molecular diode about half a nanometre across which could be connected by polythiophene
molecular wires. Theoretical calculations showed the design to be sound in principle and there is still hope that such a system can be made to work.
studies the transport of ions rather than electrons in nanoscale systems.
Nanophotonics
studies the behavior of light on the nanoscale, and has the goal of developing devices that take advantage of this behavior.
techniques. A number of approaches are currently being researched, including new forms of nanolithography
, as well as the use of nanomaterials
such as nanowire
s or small molecules
in place of traditional CMOS
components. Field effect transistors have been made using both semiconducting carbon nanotube
s and with heterostructured semiconductor nanowires.
s than are possible with conventional planar silicon solar cells. It is believed that the invention of more efficient solar energy would have a great effect on satisfying global energy needs.
There is also research into energy production for devices that would operate in vivo
, called bio-nano generators. A bio-nano generator is a nanoscale
electrochemical
device, like a fuel cell
or galvanic cell
, but drawing power from blood glucose in a living body, much the same as how the body generates energy
from food
. To achieve the effect, an enzyme
is used that is capable of stripping glucose of its electron
s, freeing them for use in electrical devices. The average person's body could, theoretically, generate 100 watt
s of electricity
(about 2000 food calories per day) using a bio-nano generator. However, this estimate is only true if all food was converted to electricity, and the human body needs some energy consistently, so possible power generated is likely much lower. The electricity generated by such a device could power devices embedded in the body (such as pacemakers
), or sugar-fed nanorobot
s. Much of the research done on bio-nano generators is still experimental, with Panasonic
's Nanotechnology Research Laboratory among those at the forefront.
s in real time for use as medical diagnostics, thus falling into the category of nanomedicine
.
A parallel line of research seeks to create nanoelectronic devices which could interact with single cells
for use in basic biological research.
These devices are called nanosensor
s. Such miniaturization on nanoelectronics towards in vivo proteomic sensing should enable new approaches for health monitoring, surveillance, and defense technology.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, or other structures possessing at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres...
on electronic
Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...
components, especially transistors. Although the term nanotechnology is generally defined as utilizing technology less than 100 nm in size, nanoelectronics often refer to transistor devices that are so small that inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
properties need to be studied extensively. As a result, present transistors do not fall under this category, even though these devices are manufactured with 45 nm
45 nanometer
Per the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, the 45 nm technology node should refer to the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2007–2008 time frame....
, 32 nm
32 nanometer
The 32 nm process is the step following the 45 nanometer process in CMOS semiconductor device fabrication. 32 nanometer refers to the average half-pitch of a memory cell at this technology level...
, or 22 nm
22 nanometer
The 22 nanometer node is the CMOS process step following 32 nm. It was introduced by semiconductor companies in 2011. The typical half-pitch for a memory cell is around 22 nm...
technology.
Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as disruptive technology
Disruptive technology
A disruptive technology or disruptive innovation is an innovation that helps create a new market and value network, and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network , displacing an earlier technology there...
because present candidates are significantly different from traditional transistors. Some of these candidates include: hybrid molecular/semiconductor
Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material with electrical conductivity due to electron flow intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 103 to 10−8 siemens per centimeter...
electronics, one dimensional nanotubes/nanowire
Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer . Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained length. At these scales, quantum mechanical effects are important —...
s, or advanced molecular electronics
Molecular electronics
Molecular electronics, sometimes called moletronics, involves the study and application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components...
.
Fundamental concepts
In 1965 Gordon MooreGordon Moore
Gordon Earle Moore is the co-founder and Chairman Emeritus of Intel Corporation and the author of Moore's Law .-Life and career:...
observed that silicon transistors were undergoing a continual process of scaling downward, an observation which was later codified as Moore's law
Moore's Law
Moore's law describes a long-term trend in the history of computing hardware: the number of transistors that can be placed inexpensively on an integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years....
. Since his observation transistor minimum feature sizes have decreased from 10 micrometers to the 28-22 nm range in 2011. The field of nanoelectronics aims to enable the continued realization of this law by using new methods and materials to build electronic devices with feature sizes on the nanoscale.
The volume
Volume
Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by some closed boundary, for example, the space that a substance or shape occupies or contains....
of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but the surface area
Surface area
Surface area is the measure of how much exposed area a solid object has, expressed in square units. Mathematical description of the surface area is considerably more involved than the definition of arc length of a curve. For polyhedra the surface area is the sum of the areas of its faces...
only decreases as its second power. This somewhat subtle and unavoidable principle has huge ramifications. For example the power
Power (physics)
In physics, power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or transformed. For example, the rate at which a light bulb transforms electrical energy into heat and light is measured in watts—the more wattage, the more power, or equivalently the more electrical energy is used per unit...
of a drill
Drill
A drill or drill motor is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment, usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for drilling holes in various materials or fastening various materials together with the use of fasteners. The attachment is gripped by a chuck at one end of...
(or any other machine) is proportional to the volume, while the friction
Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and/or material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:...
of the drill's bearings
Bearing (mechanical)
A bearing is a device to allow constrained relative motion between two or more parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they allow and according to their principle of operation as well as by the directions of applied loads they can...
and gear
Gear
A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine....
s is proportional to their surface area. For a normal-sized drill, the power of the device is enough to handily overcome any friction. However, scaling its length down by a factor of 1000, for example, decreases its power by 10003 (a factor of a billion) while reducing the friction by only 10002 (a factor of "only" a million). Proportionally it has 1000 times less power per unit friction than the original drill. If the original friction-to-power ratio was, say, 1%, that implies the smaller drill will have 10 times as much friction as power. The drill is useless.
For this reason, while super-miniature electronic integrated circuit
Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is an electronic circuit manufactured by the patterned diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material...
s are fully functional, the same technology cannot be used to make working mechanical devices beyond the scales where frictional forces start to exceed the available power. So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications, for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of "micro factory"
Molecular assembler
A molecular assembler, as defined by K. Eric Drexler, is a "proposed device able to guide chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision". Some biological molecules such as ribosomes fit this definition. This is because they receive instructions from messenger RNA and...
impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in working cilia
Cilium
A cilium is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Cilia are slender protuberances that project from the much larger cell body....
, flagella
Flagellum
A flagellum is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and plays the dual role of locomotion and sense organ, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell. There are some notable differences between prokaryotic and...
, muscle fibers and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale. These machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a propeller which depends on normal frictional forces (the frictional forces perpendicular to the surface) to achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces (frictional forces parallel to the surface) present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones.
All scaling issues therefore need to be assessed thoroughly when evaluating nanotechnology for practical applications.
Nanofabrication
For example, single electron transistors, which involve transistor operation based on a single electron. Nanoelectromechanical systemsNanoelectromechanical systems
Nanoelectromechanical systems are devices integrating electrical and mechanical functionality on the nanoscale. NEMS form the logical next miniaturization step from so-called microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS devices...
also fall under this category.
Nanofabrication can be used to construct ultradense parallel arrays of nanowire
Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer . Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained length. At these scales, quantum mechanical effects are important —...
s, as an alternative to synthesizing nanowires individually.
Nanomaterials electronics
Besides being small and allowing more transistors to be packed into a single chip, the uniform and symmetrical structure of nanotubesCarbon nanotube
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, significantly larger than for any other material...
allows a higher electron mobility
Electron mobility
In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity for holes, called hole mobility...
(faster electron movement in the material), a higher dielectric
Dielectric
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material, as in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric...
constant (faster frequency), and a symmetrical electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
/hole
Electron hole
An electron hole is the conceptual and mathematical opposite of an electron, useful in the study of physics, chemistry, and electrical engineering. The concept describes the lack of an electron at a position where one could exist in an atom or atomic lattice...
characteristic.
Also, nanoparticle
Nanoparticle
In nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties. Particles are further classified according to size : in terms of diameter, coarse particles cover a range between 10,000 and 2,500 nanometers. Fine particles are sized...
s can be used as quantum dots.
Molecular electronics
Single molecule devices are another possibility. These schemes would make heavy use of molecular self-assemblyMolecular self-assembly
Molecular self-assembly is the process by which molecules adopt a defined arrangement without guidance or management from an outside source. There are two types of self-assembly, intramolecular self-assembly and intermolecular self-assembly...
, designing the device components to construct a larger structure or even a complete system on their own. This can be very useful for reconfigurable computing
Reconfigurable computing
Reconfigurable computing is a computer architecture combining some of the flexibility of software with the high performance of hardware by processing with very flexible high speed computing fabrics like field-programmable gate arrays...
, and may even completely replace present FPGA
Field-programmable gate array
A field-programmable gate array is an integrated circuit designed to be configured by the customer or designer after manufacturing—hence "field-programmable"...
technology.
Molecular electronics is a new technology which is still in its infancy, but also brings hope for truly atomic scale electronic systems in the future. One of the more promising applications of molecular electronics was proposed by the IBM researcher Ari Aviram and the theoretical chemist Mark Ratner
Mark Ratner
Mark A. Ratner is Morrison Professor of Chemistry and Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at Northwestern University...
in their 1974 and 1988 papers Molecules for Memory, Logic and Amplification, (see Unimolecular rectifier).
This is one of many possible ways in which a molecular level diode / transistor might be synthesized by organic chemistry.
A model system was proposed with a spiro carbon structure giving a molecular diode about half a nanometre across which could be connected by polythiophene
Polythiophene
Polythiophenes result from the polymerization of thiophenes, a sulfur heterocycle, that can become conducting when electrons are added or removed from the conjugated π-orbitals via doping....
molecular wires. Theoretical calculations showed the design to be sound in principle and there is still hope that such a system can be made to work.
Other approaches
NanoionicsNanoionics
Nanoionics is the study and application of phenomena, properties, effects and mechanisms of processes connected with fast ion transport in all-solid-state nanoscale systems. The topics of interest include fundamental properties of oxide ceramics at nanometer length scales, and fast ion conductor...
studies the transport of ions rather than electrons in nanoscale systems.
Nanophotonics
Nanophotonics
Nanophotonics or Nano-optics is the study of the behavior of light on the nanometer scale. It is considered as a branch of optical engineering which deals with optics, or the interaction of light with particles or substances, at deeply subwavelength length scales...
studies the behavior of light on the nanoscale, and has the goal of developing devices that take advantage of this behavior.
Computers
Nanoelectronics holds the promise of making computer processors more powerful than are possible with conventional semiconductor fabricationSemiconductor fabrication
Semiconductor device fabrication is the process used to create the integrated circuits that are present in everyday electrical and electronic devices. It is a multiple-step sequence of photolithographic and chemical processing steps during which electronic circuits are gradually created on a wafer...
techniques. A number of approaches are currently being researched, including new forms of nanolithography
Nanolithography
Nanolithography is the branch of nanotechnology concerned with the study and application of fabricating nanometer-scale structures, meaning patterns with at least one lateral dimension between the size of an individual atom and approximately 100 nm...
, as well as the use of nanomaterials
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials is a field that takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those that have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions...
such as nanowire
Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer . Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained length. At these scales, quantum mechanical effects are important —...
s or small molecules
Molecular logic gate
A molecular logic gate is a molecule that performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Much academic research is dedicated to the development of these systems and several prototypes now exist...
in place of traditional CMOS
CMOS
Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor is a technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits...
components. Field effect transistors have been made using both semiconducting carbon nanotube
Carbon nanotube
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, significantly larger than for any other material...
s and with heterostructured semiconductor nanowires.
Energy production
Research is ongoing to use nanowires and other nanostructured materials with the hope to create cheaper and more efficient solar cellSolar cell
A solar cell is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect....
s than are possible with conventional planar silicon solar cells. It is believed that the invention of more efficient solar energy would have a great effect on satisfying global energy needs.
There is also research into energy production for devices that would operate in vivo
In vivo
In vivo is experimentation using a whole, living organism as opposed to a partial or dead organism, or an in vitro controlled environment. Animal testing and clinical trials are two forms of in vivo research...
, called bio-nano generators. A bio-nano generator is a nanoscale
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, or other structures possessing at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres...
electrochemical
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor and an ionic conductor , and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.If a chemical reaction is...
device, like a fuel cell
Fuel cell
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used...
or galvanic cell
Galvanic cell
A Galvanic cell, or Voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani, or Alessandro Volta respectively, is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous redox reaction taking place within the cell...
, but drawing power from blood glucose in a living body, much the same as how the body generates energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
from food
Food
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals...
. To achieve the effect, an enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
is used that is capable of stripping glucose of its electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
s, freeing them for use in electrical devices. The average person's body could, theoretically, generate 100 watt
Watt
The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units , named after the Scottish engineer James Watt . The unit, defined as one joule per second, measures the rate of energy conversion.-Definition:...
s of electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
(about 2000 food calories per day) using a bio-nano generator. However, this estimate is only true if all food was converted to electricity, and the human body needs some energy consistently, so possible power generated is likely much lower. The electricity generated by such a device could power devices embedded in the body (such as pacemakers
Artificial pacemaker
A pacemaker is a medical device that uses electrical impulses, delivered by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart...
), or sugar-fed nanorobot
Nanorobotics
Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field of creating machines or robots whose components are at or close to the scale of a nanometer . More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots, with devices ranging in size from...
s. Much of the research done on bio-nano generators is still experimental, with Panasonic
Panasonic
Panasonic is an international brand name for Japanese electric products manufacturer Panasonic Corporation, which was formerly known as Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd...
's Nanotechnology Research Laboratory among those at the forefront.
Medical diagnostics
There is great interest in constructing nanoelectronic devices that could detect the concentrations of biomoleculeBiomolecule
A biomolecule is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products...
s in real time for use as medical diagnostics, thus falling into the category of nanomedicine
Nanomedicine
Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotechnology. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related...
.
A parallel line of research seeks to create nanoelectronic devices which could interact with single cells
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
for use in basic biological research.
These devices are called nanosensor
Nanosensor
Nanosensors are any biological, chemical, or surgical sensory points used to convey information about nanoparticles to the macroscopic world. Their use mainly include various medicinal purposes and as gateways to building other nanoproducts, such as computer chips that work at the nanoscale and...
s. Such miniaturization on nanoelectronics towards in vivo proteomic sensing should enable new approaches for health monitoring, surveillance, and defense technology.
Further reading
- Online course on Fundamentals of Electronics by Supriyo Datta (2008)
External references
- Virtual Institute of Spin Electronics
- Site on electronics of Single Walled Carbon nanotube at nanoscale - nanoelectronics
- Site on Nano Electronics and Advanced VLSI Research
- Website of the nanoelectronics unit of the European Commission, DG INFSO
- Nanoelectronics at UnderstandingNano Web site
- Nanoelectronics - PhysOrg