Mexican Empire
Encyclopedia
The Mexican Empire or rarely Gran Mexico was the name of modern Mexico
on two brief occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an emperor
. With the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
from Spain
in 1821, Mexico became an independent monarchy
, but was soon replaced with the First Mexican Republic. The latter reverted to the Second Mexican Empire
1864-1867.
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The First Mexican Empire lasted eighteen months, from 28 September 1821 to 19 March 1823 and had one emperor, Agustín de Iturbide
. Its origins can be traced to Napoleon I of France
's conquest of Spain in 1808 and his installation of Joseph Bonaparte
as King of Spain. These events loosened Spain's hold on her American colonies
, and the movement for Mexican independence grew stronger.
The Mexican War of Independence
began in 1810 and continued until 1821, when rebel troops entered Mexico City
after the Treaty of Córdoba
was signed, whereby Spain's representative, Juan O'Donojú
, recognized Mexico's independence. In that year, General Agustín de Iturbide
, a Mexican-born criollo
former royalist who had switched his allegiance to the insurgents in the final phases of the war, was elected head of a provisional junta government and of a regency
that held the imperial power that the Spanish crown once had. On the night of 18 May 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded that their commander-in-chief accept the throne. The next day the Sovereign Congress named him emperor, and on 21 May issued a decree officially confirming this appointment, which was officially a temporary measure until a European monarch could be found to rule Mexico.
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Iturbide's official title was "By Divine Providence and the National Congress, First Constitutional Emperor of Mexico" . His coronation
took place on 21 July 1822, in Mexico City. The territorial area of the Mexican Empire of 1821 was about 5,000,000 square kilometers, ranging from the Oregon
–California
border at 42nd latitude north, to the boundary with Panama
(at that time, part of Colombia
). Most of the countries of Central America
were part of Mexico—they became a separate federal republic
after the Empire collapsed.
As factions in the Congress began to sharply criticise both Iturbide and his policies, the emperor decided on 31 October to dissolve it. This enraged the commander of the garrison at Veracruz
, Antonio López de Santa Anna
, who with his troops rose up against Iturbide and declared a republic
on 1 December. Fearing for his life as the rebellion grew stronger, the emperor ordered the dissolved Congress to reassemble on 4 March 1823. He presented his abdication
to it in a night-time session on 19 March. He fled to Italy
shortly after. In April 1824 the Congress, having already declared his administration void, declared Iturbide a traitor
. When he returned to Mexico in July 1824 he was arrested on arrival in Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas
, and executed.
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In 1860 Benito Juárez
became president of Mexico. Juarez suspended all repayments on foreign debts, with the exception of those owed to the United States
. In response, the principal creditors of the United Kingdom
, France
, and Spain
sent a joint expeditionary force which occupied the port of Veracruz in December 1861. Juarez repaid most of the outstanding interest and agreed to honor the debts. Britain and Spain withdrew, their claims having been honoured, but not the French Empire
which had a more ambitious goal in mind than merely the recovery of debts.
Napoleon III, heavily influenced by his romantically-minded
wife, Eugénie de Montijo
, decided to revive the Mexican monarchy. He wanted to place a fellow emperor on the throne who would promote the interests of France. Prior to 1861 any interference in the affairs of Mexico by any of the European powers would have been viewed as a challenge to the Monroe Doctrine
of the United States. However, in 1861, the United States became entangled in the American Civil War
and thus was unable to enforce the Doctrine. Encouraged by the Empress Eugenie, who saw herself as the champion of the beleaguered Catholic Church in Mexico, Napoleon III took advantage of the situation.
Many favored the nomination of Archduke Maximilian of Austria as monarch, and so, in May 1864, became the new emperor of Mexico, Maximilian I of Mexico
, and with his consort, Carlota of Mexico, landed at Veracruz
with the backing of Mexican conservatives, including the Mexican nobility
, and France. Belgium — ruled by King Leopold I
, Empress Carlota's father — also sent troops to aid the cause in Mexico.
of the House of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico
in 1867, there has been a pretender
line of accession to the throne through his adopted son, the grandson of Mexico's first emperor, Agustin I
. The current Pretender to the throne of Mexico is Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
, born in 1944. He is not a male-line descendant, but inherited his claim following the death of his grandmother, Princess Maria Josepha Sophia de Iturbide
, who was the daughter of Prince Salvador de Iturbide y de Marzán
, Emperor Maximilian's adoptee along with his cousin Agustin. Maximiliano de Götzen-Iturbide resides in Australia
. Should the entire line of the pretender House of Itúrbide
or House of Habsburg-Itúrbide
fail, along with all other descendants of Agustín de Iturbide, the next likely successors might be the descendants of the siblings of Agustin I, or a member of the House of Habsburg.
Maximiliano Gustav Albrecht Richard Agustin de Götzen-Itúrbide
, Count of Götzen (b. March 1944)
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
on two brief occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
. With the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is the foundational document of the empire, and therefore, of the Mexican nation. The morning after the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City on September 28, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide ordered the Supreme Provisional Governmental...
from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
in 1821, Mexico became an independent monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, but was soon replaced with the First Mexican Republic. The latter reverted to the Second Mexican Empire
Second Mexican Empire
The Second Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico under the regime established from 1864 to 1867. It was created by Napoleon III of France, who attempted to use the Mexican adventure to recapture some of the grandeur of earlier Napoleonic times...
1864-1867.
First Mexican Empire
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
. Its origins can be traced to Napoleon I of France
Napoleon I of France
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
's conquest of Spain in 1808 and his installation of Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily , and later King of Spain...
as King of Spain. These events loosened Spain's hold on her American colonies
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions...
, and the movement for Mexican independence grew stronger.
The Mexican War of Independence
Mexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
began in 1810 and continued until 1821, when rebel troops entered Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
after the Treaty of Córdoba
Treaty of Córdoba
The Treaty of Córdova established Mexican independence from Spain at the conclusion of the Mexican War of Independence. It was signed on August 24, 1821 in Córdoba, Veracruz, Mexico. The signatories were the head of the Army of the Three Guarantees, Agustín de Iturbide, and acting on behalf of the...
was signed, whereby Spain's representative, Juan O'Donojú
Juan O'Donojú
Juan O'Donojú y O'Rian was a Spanish military officer and jefe político superior of New Spain from July 21, 1821 to September 28, 1821, during Mexico's war of independence...
, recognized Mexico's independence. In that year, General Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
, a Mexican-born criollo
Criollo people
The Criollo class ranked below that of the Iberian Peninsulares, the high-born permanent residence colonists born in Spain. But Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes—people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans...
former royalist who had switched his allegiance to the insurgents in the final phases of the war, was elected head of a provisional junta government and of a regency
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
that held the imperial power that the Spanish crown once had. On the night of 18 May 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded that their commander-in-chief accept the throne. The next day the Sovereign Congress named him emperor, and on 21 May issued a decree officially confirming this appointment, which was officially a temporary measure until a European monarch could be found to rule Mexico.
Coronation
A coronation is a ceremony marking the formal investiture of a monarch and/or their consort with regal power, usually involving the placement of a crown upon their head and the presentation of other items of regalia...
took place on 21 July 1822, in Mexico City. The territorial area of the Mexican Empire of 1821 was about 5,000,000 square kilometers, ranging from the Oregon
Oregon
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern...
–California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
border at 42nd latitude north, to the boundary with Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
(at that time, part of Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
). Most of the countries of Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
were part of Mexico—they became a separate federal republic
Federal Republic of Central America
The Federal Republic of Central America, known as the United Provinces of Central America in its first year of creation, was a sovereign state in Central America, which consisted of the territories of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala of New Spain...
after the Empire collapsed.
As factions in the Congress began to sharply criticise both Iturbide and his policies, the emperor decided on 31 October to dissolve it. This enraged the commander of the garrison at Veracruz
Veracruz, Veracruz
Veracruz, officially known as Heroica Veracruz, is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located in the central part of the state. It is located along Federal Highway 140 from the state capital Xalapa, and is the state's most...
, Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
, who with his troops rose up against Iturbide and declared a republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
on 1 December. Fearing for his life as the rebellion grew stronger, the emperor ordered the dissolved Congress to reassemble on 4 March 1823. He presented his abdication
Abdication
Abdication occurs when a monarch, such as a king or emperor, renounces his office.-Terminology:The word abdication comes derives from the Latin abdicatio. meaning to disown or renounce...
to it in a night-time session on 19 March. He fled to Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
shortly after. In April 1824 the Congress, having already declared his administration void, declared Iturbide a traitor
Treason
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife. Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a...
. When he returned to Mexico in July 1824 he was arrested on arrival in Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria. The capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the...
, and executed.
Second Mexican Empire
Benito Juárez
Benito Juárez born Benito Pablo Juárez García, was a Mexican lawyer and politician of Zapotec origin from Oaxaca who served five terms as president of Mexico: 1858–1861 as interim, 1861–1865, 1865–1867, 1867–1871 and 1871–1872...
became president of Mexico. Juarez suspended all repayments on foreign debts, with the exception of those owed to the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. In response, the principal creditors of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
sent a joint expeditionary force which occupied the port of Veracruz in December 1861. Juarez repaid most of the outstanding interest and agreed to honor the debts. Britain and Spain withdrew, their claims having been honoured, but not the French Empire
Second French Empire
The Second French Empire or French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.-Rule of Napoleon III:...
which had a more ambitious goal in mind than merely the recovery of debts.
Napoleon III, heavily influenced by his romantically-minded
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
wife, Eugénie de Montijo
Eugénie de Montijo
Doña María Eugenia Ignacia Augustina de Palafox-Portocarrero de Guzmán y Kirkpatrick, 16th Countess of Teba and 15th Marquise of Ardales; 5 May 1826 – 11 July 1920), known as Eugénie de Montijo , was the last Empress consort of the French from 1853 to 1871 as the wife of Napoleon III, Emperor of...
, decided to revive the Mexican monarchy. He wanted to place a fellow emperor on the throne who would promote the interests of France. Prior to 1861 any interference in the affairs of Mexico by any of the European powers would have been viewed as a challenge to the Monroe Doctrine
Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine is a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention...
of the United States. However, in 1861, the United States became entangled in the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
and thus was unable to enforce the Doctrine. Encouraged by the Empress Eugenie, who saw herself as the champion of the beleaguered Catholic Church in Mexico, Napoleon III took advantage of the situation.
Many favored the nomination of Archduke Maximilian of Austria as monarch, and so, in May 1864, became the new emperor of Mexico, Maximilian I of Mexico
Maximilian I of Mexico
Maximilian I was the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire.After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on April 10, 1864, with the backing of Napoleon III of France and a group of Mexican monarchists who sought to revive the Mexican monarchy...
, and with his consort, Carlota of Mexico, landed at Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
with the backing of Mexican conservatives, including the Mexican nobility
Mexican nobility
Mexican nobility refers to the titled nobles and untitled gentry families of Mexico. Most of the descendants of these families still live in Mexico today, but some can be found in Europe and other countries....
, and France. Belgium — ruled by King Leopold I
Leopold I of Belgium
Leopold I was from 21 July 1831 the first King of the Belgians, following Belgium's independence from the Netherlands. He was the founder of the Belgian line of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha...
, Empress Carlota's father — also sent troops to aid the cause in Mexico.
Pretender to the Imperial Throne of Mexico
Since the deposition of Maximilian IMaximilian I of Mexico
Maximilian I was the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire.After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on April 10, 1864, with the backing of Napoleon III of France and a group of Mexican monarchists who sought to revive the Mexican monarchy...
of the House of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico
Emperor of Mexico
The Emperor of Mexico was the head of state and ruler of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century....
in 1867, there has been a pretender
Pretender
A pretender is one who claims entitlement to an unavailable position of honour or rank. Most often it refers to a former monarch, or descendant thereof, whose throne is occupied or claimed by a rival, or has been abolished....
line of accession to the throne through his adopted son, the grandson of Mexico's first emperor, Agustin I
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
. The current Pretender to the throne of Mexico is Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
Maximilian von Götzen-Iturbide
Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide (born March 2, 1944 in Bistriţa, Romania (then Hungary), is the current head of the former Imperial House...
, born in 1944. He is not a male-line descendant, but inherited his claim following the death of his grandmother, Princess Maria Josepha Sophia de Iturbide
Maria Josepha Sophia de Iturbide
Maria Josepha Sophia de Itúrbide, Princess Imperial of Mexico was the head of the Imperial House of Mexico from 1925 to 1949.-Biography:...
, who was the daughter of Prince Salvador de Iturbide y de Marzán
Salvador de Iturbide y de Marzán
Don Salvador, Prince of Iturbide, also named Salvador de Iturbide y Marzán . was the second adopted son of Maximilian I of Mexico.-Family:...
, Emperor Maximilian's adoptee along with his cousin Agustin. Maximiliano de Götzen-Iturbide resides in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. Should the entire line of the pretender House of Itúrbide
House of Iturbide
The House of Iturbide is the former Imperial House of Mexico. It was founded by Agustín de Iturbide in 1822 when the newly independent Mexican congress confirmed his title of Agustín I, Constitutional Emperor of Mexico...
or House of Habsburg-Itúrbide
House of Habsburg-Iturbide
The House of Habsburg-Itúrbide is the second royal house after the House of Itúrbide In 1822 when the newly independent Mexican congress confirmed the title of Agustín I, Constitutional Emperor of Mexico on Agustín de Itúrbide, a Mexican general. After the demise of the First Mexican Empire less...
fail, along with all other descendants of Agustín de Iturbide, the next likely successors might be the descendants of the siblings of Agustin I, or a member of the House of Habsburg.
Line of succession to the Imperial Throne of Mexico
Head of the Imperial house of Mexico: DonDon (honorific)
Don, from Latin dominus, is an honorific in Spanish , Portuguese , and Italian . The female equivalent is Doña , Dona , and Donna , abbreviated "Dª" or simply "D."-Usage:...
Maximiliano Gustav Albrecht Richard Agustin de Götzen-Itúrbide
Maximilian von Götzen-Iturbide
Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide Maximiliano Gustav Richard Albrecht Agustin von Götzen-Iturbide (born March 2, 1944 in Bistriţa, Romania (then Hungary), is the current head of the former Imperial House...
, Count of Götzen (b. March 1944)
- (Count) DonDon (honorific)Don, from Latin dominus, is an honorific in Spanish , Portuguese , and Italian . The female equivalent is Doña , Dona , and Donna , abbreviated "Dª" or simply "D."-Usage:...
Fernando Leopold Maximiliano Gustav Salvador de Götzen-Itúrbide (b. August 1992), Prince de Itúrbide with the qualification of Highness. Son of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide - (Countess) DoñaDon (honorific)Don, from Latin dominus, is an honorific in Spanish , Portuguese , and Italian . The female equivalent is Doña , Dona , and Donna , abbreviated "Dª" or simply "D."-Usage:...
Emanuela Charlotte Maria Helena de Götzen-Itúrbide (b. September 1998), Princess de Itúrbide with the qualification of Highness. Daughter of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide - (Countess) DoñaDon (honorific)Don, from Latin dominus, is an honorific in Spanish , Portuguese , and Italian . The female equivalent is Doña , Dona , and Donna , abbreviated "Dª" or simply "D."-Usage:...
Emanuela (Emma) Huberta Johanna Maria Gizella de Götzen-Itúrbide, Princess de Itúrbide with the qualification of Highness (b. September 1945) Sister of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide - Nicholas MacAulay (b. 1970), Nephew of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Edward MacAulay (b. 1973), Nephew of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Augustin MacAulay (b. 1977), Nephew of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Patrick MacAulay (b. 1979), Nephew of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Philip MacAulay (b. 1981), Nephew of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Camilla MacAulay (b. 1972), Niece of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
- Gizella MacAulay (b. 1985), Niece of Maximiliano de Götzen-Itúrbide
See also
- Mexican War of IndependenceMexican War of IndependenceThe Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
- Declaration of Independence of the Mexican EmpireDeclaration of Independence of the Mexican EmpireThe Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire is the foundational document of the empire, and therefore, of the Mexican nation. The morning after the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City on September 28, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide ordered the Supreme Provisional Governmental...
- Mexican Imperial OrdersMexican Imperial OrdersThere were three Imperial Orders of the Mexican Empire were created to reward those subjects loyal to the Monarchy during the two periods of the Mexican Empire. Those were the Order of Guadalupe, the Order of the Mexican Eagle and the Order of Saint Charles.All three were abolished after the fall...
- Imperial Crown of MexicoImperial Crown of MexicoThe Imperial Crown of Mexico was the crown created for the monarch of Mexico on two separate occasions. The crown of the First Mexican Empire, ruled by Agustin I of Mexico, can be seen in his many portraits , but its history is not entirely known....
- Emperor of MexicoEmperor of MexicoThe Emperor of Mexico was the head of state and ruler of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century....
- Empire of Brazil