McGill University Faculty of Law
Encyclopedia
The Faculty of Law is a constituent faculty of McGill University
McGill University
Mohammed Fathy is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university...

, in Montreal
Montreal
Montreal is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the seventh largest in North America...

, Quebec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....

. Its graduates obtain both a Bachelor of Laws
Bachelor of Laws
The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate, or bachelor, degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree...

 (LL.B.) and Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.), concurrently, in three to four years, allowing them to practice in both the Canadian, U.S. and UK common law
Common law
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

 system as well as Quebec's civil law
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...

 system.

History

The Faculty of Law was officially created in 1848, making it the first to be established in Canada, as a response to a petition
Petition
A petition is a request to do something, most commonly addressed to a government official or public entity. Petitions to a deity are a form of prayer....

 from 23 young men who had been studying independently for the bar
Bar association
A bar association is a professional body of lawyers. Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are professional organizations dedicated to serving their members; in many cases, they are both...

. Before that, lawyer
Lawyer
A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law; as an attorney, counsel or solicitor; a person who is practicing law." Law is the system of rules of conduct established by the sovereign government of a society to correct wrongs, maintain the stability of political...

s in Quebec, like in the United States, did not need a law degree and typically pursued five-year apprenticeship
Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill. Apprentices or protégés build their careers from apprenticeships...

s to be called to the bar. For most of its history, it offered degrees only based on Quebec law, which features the civil law
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...

 system in the sphere of private law.

National Programme, 1968-1999

With the incoming class of 1969 the Faculty added a stand-alone common law
Common law
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

 degree, suitable to the practice of law in other Canadian provinces, which could be taken individually or jointly with the traditional civilian curriculum. The joint degree was then referred to as the National Programme, and taught common law and civil law in separate courses, but combined their study in a year-long introductory "Foundations" course and in some upper-year seminars.

Transsystemic Program, 1999-present

With the incoming class of 1999 the Faculty eliminated its civil, common, and National programs, and replaced them with a single program, which includes some mandatory first-year courses and some upper-year courses which integrate both common and civil law. This joint and bilingual degree, which all students must take, is now referred to as the Transsystemic program.

The Transsystemic program was created under the direction of former Dean Stephen Toope
Stephen Toope
Stephen J. Toope, is the President and Vice-Chancellor of the University of British Columbia. He assumed the presidential post on July 1, 2006 for a term of five years...

, whereby every student graduates with degrees in both civil law
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...

 and common law
Common law
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

. This means that, from the first year, courses now explore civil and common law concepts in close comparison. Students analyse and critically evaluate the two traditions, their histories, and their social, political, and cultural contexts. Undergraduate students may participate in international exchange programs, and in the International Courts and Tribunals Program, which in 2006 received a Scotiabank
Scotiabank
The Bank of Nova Scotia , commonly known as Scotiabank , is the third largest bank in Canada by deposits and market capitalization. It serves some 18.6 million customers in more than 50 countries around the world and offers a broad range of products and services including personal, commercial,...

-AUCC Award for Excellence in Internationalization as well as the Canadian Bureau for International Education
Canadian Bureau for International Education
The Canadian Bureau for International Education promotes Canada's international relations through international education - supporting the interests of foreign nationals studying in Canada and the Canadians studying abroad. It advocates for the free movement of ideas and learners across national...

's Award for Outstanding Program in International Education in 2006 and 2008.

Graduate Programs

The Faculty of Law offers the degrees of D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law) and LL.M. (Master of Laws), as well as Graduate Certificates. Since 2004, the LL.M. exists in both with-thesis and non-thesis options.The Faculty's Institutes and Centres provide a focus for many students' research; they include the Institute for European Studies, the Institute of Comparative Law, the Centre for Human Rights & Legal Pluralism, the Quebec Research Centre of Private and Comparative Law, and the Centre for Intellectual Property Policy. The Centre for International Sustainable Development Law (CISDL), although not formally affiliated with McGill University, is associated with the Faculty of Law and has its head office there.

The Institute of Air and Space Law is the world's best-known establishment for the graduate study of Air and Space Law, and is able to take advantage of the presence in Montreal of the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Air Transport Association (IATA), and a significant aerospace industry.

McGill's graduate programs have a very international character. As in the undergraduate programs, the teaching focus is transsystemic and international in character. The Faculty's reputation, and its bilingual and bijuridical character, draws students from all over the world and from all legal traditions.

Admission

Admission to both undergraduate and graduate programs is competitive. At the undergraduate level, the Faculty receives nine times more applications than the 170 available spaces in the first year class, an admission rate of 11-12%. The average GPA for first year admissions in 2010 was 83% (A- average on a lettered GPA scale) and the average LSAT score was 163 (88th percentile), although the LSAT is not required for admission. It is, however, difficult to compare these statistics to those of other law faculties, because of McGill's unique transsystemic curriculum and its bilingual environment (although bilingualism is measured by self-assessment, and students are not required to take courses in French or English). Applicants must be at least "passively" bilingual, and because the LSAT is offered only in English, applicants to McGill are not required to take it (although if they have taken it, they must report their score).

Undergraduate candidates are selected on a holistic basis. This means that in addition to students' academic records, recommendations, work experience, graduate studies, experience abroad, community involvement and leadership skills are each given weight in admissions decisions. Canadian students of Aboriginal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada
Aboriginal peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis. The descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have fallen into disuse in Canada and are commonly considered pejorative....

 ancestry are actively recruited by the admissions office in an ongoing effort to increase enrollment from these groups across Canadian law faculties.

As per the QS World University Rankings, McGill's faculty of law is ranked No. 1 in Canada and No. 12 internationally. The rankings are obtained from three measures: academic opinion, employer opinion and citations by academics. In addition, McGill's reputation with international employers, coupled with its bilingual accreditation, also place the faculty in high regard. Many McGill graduates continue on to careers in the European Union, notably France, and make up the bulk of corporate lawyers in Montréal's legal market, in addition to careers on Bay Street, Canada's financial core. As of 2008, McGill has also begun to offer some law courses in Spanish, another distinction that sets it apart from its rivals. McGill boasts Canada's oldest law faculty.

LegalEase

LegalEase is a monthly, student-run radio
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space...

 program broadcast on CKUT 90.3 FM
CKUT-FM
CKUT-FM is the official campus community radio station of McGill University. It can be heard at 90.3 FM in Montreal, 91.7 on cable, or on the . CKUT's FM signal, broadcast from a tower on the top of Mount Royal, reaches as far as the Eastern Townships and upstate New York...

 in Montreal
Montreal
Montreal is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the seventh largest in North America...

, operated by McGill Faculty of Law students. It has been providing legal information and programming to the Montreal community for over 20 years.

The program was founded in 1989 through the McGill Legal Information Clinic. Soon thereafter, the LegalEase became independent. On its 20th year anniversary, it launched an online blog to complement its radio program.http://legaleaseckut.wordpress.com/ LegalEase is a tool to further public legal education
Public legal education
Public legal education comprises a range of activities intended to build public awareness and skills related to law and the justice system. This term also refers to the fields of practice and study concerned with those activities, and to a social and professional movement that advocates greater...

 initiatives in Quebec and Canada. The program covers topics of general legal interest as well as issues particular to the common law
Common law
Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

 and the civil law
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...

. Notable guests on the program include Janet Afary
Janet Afary
Janet Afary is an Iranian author, feminist activist and researcher in history, Religious Studies and women studies. She now lives in the United States of America, and currently teaches at the University of California, Santa Barbara....

, Jim Stanford
Jim Stanford
Jim Stanford, a Canadian economist, is economist for the Canadian Auto Workers and founder of the Progressive Economics Forum. He holds a Master’s degree in Economics from Cambridge University, and a Ph.D. from the New School for Social Research...

, Jill Hennessy
Jill Hennessy
Jillian Noel "Jill" Hennessy is a Canadian actress and musician known for her television roles on Law & Order and Crossing Jordan.-Early life:...

 from Law & Order
Law & Order
Law & Order is an American police procedural and legal drama television series, created by Dick Wolf and part of the Law & Order franchise. It aired on NBC, and in syndication on various cable networks. Law & Order premiered on September 13, 1990, and completed its 20th and final season on May 24,...

 and Fernando Vegas Torrealba of the Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...

n Supreme Tribunal of Justice
Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Venezuela)
The Supreme Tribunal of Justice is the highest court of law in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and is the head of the judicial branch.The Supreme Tribunal may meet either in specialized chambers or in plenary session...

.

Academic Journals

The Faculty of Law is home to three student-run academic journals: the McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy, the McGill Journal of Law and Health, and the sixty-year-old McGill Law Journal
McGill Law Journal
The McGill Law Journal is a scholarly legal publication affiliated with the student body of the McGill University Faculty of Law in Montreal, Quebec, published by a non-profit corporate institution independent of the Faculty run exclusively by students. It also publishes the Canadian Guide to...

.

Tuition

In Quebec, university tuition is capped at rates relatively low compared to most Canadian provinces. The Faculty of Law has therefore become known among Anglophone applicants, who are more likely to compare McGill to other English-language schools and less likely to compare it to other Quebec schools, for its low tuition rate and commitment to ensure access to legal education regardless of ability to pay. Approximate tuition and fees in 2010-11 were CAD$3,748 for Quebec students, CAD$7,349 for non-Quebec Canadians, and CAD$23,785 for international students. These are somewhat higher than other Quebec law faculties, but lower than virtually every other comparable institution in Canada and the United States.

Funding

The combination of Quebec's low tuition rates, which are regulated, and the Quebec government's level of postsecondary funding, felt by many to be chronically low and even incompatible with the decision to limit tuition rates, has led to sustained efforts by the Faculty administration to rely on individual philanthropists and alumni to remain competitive with peer institutions. The high-tech Nahum Gelber Law Library was almost entirely funded by alumni and friends of the Faculty. A multi-million dollar private endowment enabled the establishment in 2005 of the graduate O'Brien Fellowships in human rights scholarship. More recently, other generous donations have led to the fully endowed Hans and Tamar Oppenheimer Chair in Public International Law; the fully endowed H. Heward Stikeman Chair in the Law of Taxation; and the founding of the Echenberg Family Conferences on Human Rights.

Employment

Leading law offices from Canada (particularly Montreal and Toronto, but also Vancouver and other cities), the U.S. (primarily New York and Boston), and Europe (particularly London and Paris), and Asia (particularly Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore, Beijing,) employ many McGill law graduates.

Beginning in 2005, McGill was one of a handful of leading law faculties (including Columbia
Columbia Law School
Columbia Law School, founded in 1858, is one of the oldest and most prestigious law schools in the United States. A member of the Ivy League, Columbia Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Columbia University in New York City. It offers the J.D., LL.M., and J.S.D. degrees in...

, Geneva
University of Geneva
The University of Geneva is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland.It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin, as a theological seminary and law school. It remained focused on theology until the 17th century, when it became a center for Enlightenment scholarship. In 1873, it...

, Harvard
Harvard Law School
Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University. Located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is home to the largest academic law library in the world. The school is routinely ranked by the U.S...

, Michigan
University of Michigan Law School
The University of Michigan Law School is the law school of the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor. Founded in 1859, the school has an enrollment of about 1,200 students, most of whom are seeking Juris Doctor or Master of Laws degrees, although the school also offers a Doctor of Juridical...

, New York University
New York University School of Law
The New York University School of Law is the law school of New York University. Established in 1835, the school offers the J.D., LL.M., and J.S.D. degrees in law, and is located in Greenwich Village, in the New York City borough of Manhattan....

, Strasbourg
University of Strasbourg
The University of Strasbourg in Strasbourg, Alsace, France, is the largest university in France, with about 43,000 students and over 4,000 researchers....

, and Yale
Yale Law School
Yale Law School, or YLS, is the law school of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Established in 1824, it offers the J.D., LL.M., J.S.D. and M.S.L. degrees in law. It also hosts visiting scholars, visiting researchers and a number of legal research centers...

) to be invited by the International Court of Justice
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands...

 to supply clerks to the Judges.

Since most students are fluent in both English and French, and receive a uniquely transsystemic legal education, they are highly successful as candidates for clerkships at the bilingual and bijuridical Supreme Court of Canada
Supreme Court of Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada and is the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, and its decisions...

. Seven students were selected to serve as Supreme Court of Canada Clerks in 2001-2, three in 2002-3, six in 2003-4, five in 2004-5, eight in both 2005-6 and 2006-7, six in 2007-8, five in 2008-2009, six in 2009-2010, five in 2010-2011, seven in 2011-2012, and six in 2012-2013; there are only 27 such clerkships offered each year. McGill students also gain clerkships at Courts of Appeal across Canada and in foreign courts, for example the Supreme Court of Israel.

Notable previous faculty members

  • Irwin Cotler
    Irwin Cotler
    Irwin Cotler, PC, OC, MP was Canada's Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada from 2003 until the Liberal government of Paul Martin lost power following the 2006 federal election. He was first elected to the Canadian House of Commons for the constituency of Mount Royal in a by-election...

     (human rights lawyer, Member of Parliament and former Canadian Minister of Justice
    Minister of Justice (Canada)
    The Minister of Justice is the Minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who is responsible for the Department of Justice and is also Attorney General of Canada .This cabinet position is usually reserved for someone with formal legal training...

    )
  • Paul-André Crépeau
    Paul-André Crépeau
    Paul-André Crépeau, was a Canadian legal academic who led the reforms of the Civil Code of Quebec and the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms....

     (responsible for drafting the new Civil Code of Quebec)
  • Julius Grey
    Julius Grey
    Julius H. Grey is a Canadian lawyer and university professor. He is particularly known for his ability to use the media.Born in Wrocław, Poland, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1971, a Bachelor of Civil Law degree in 1971, and a Master of Arts degree in 1973 from McGill University. Grey...

     (Quebec Human Rights Lawyer)
  • John Peters Humphrey
    John Peters Humphrey
    John Peters Humphrey, OC was a Canadian legal scholar, jurist, and human rights advocate. He is most famous as the author of the first draft of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights....

    , (founding Director of the United Nations
    United Nations
    The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...

     Human Rights division and principal drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
    Universal Declaration of Human Rights
    The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly . The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled...

    )
  • Nicholas Kasirer (scholar of civil law, comparative law, and law and language, Dean of the faculty 2004-2009, Quebec Court of Appeal
    Quebec Court of Appeal
    The Court of Appeal for Quebec is the highest judicial court in Quebec, Canada....

     judge)
  • Yves-Marie Morrissette (scholar of civil law and comparative law, Quebec Court of Appeal
    Quebec Court of Appeal
    The Court of Appeal for Quebec is the highest judicial court in Quebec, Canada....

     judge)
  • F.R. Scott (constitutional rights lawyer, civil libertarian and poet)
  • William Tetley
    William Tetley
    William Tetley, CM, QC is a lawyer and professor of law at McGill University in Montreal, the visiting professor of Maritime and Commercial Law at Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana, and a former member of the National Assembly of Quebec and Cabinet Minister.William Tetley attended the...

    , C.M., Q.C., LL. L. (former Quebec
    Quebec
    Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....

     Cabinet Minister, scholar of maritime law)
  • Stephen Toope
    Stephen Toope
    Stephen J. Toope, is the President and Vice-Chancellor of the University of British Columbia. He assumed the presidential post on July 1, 2006 for a term of five years...

     (international law scholar, President of the University of British Columbia
    University of British Columbia
    The University of British Columbia is a public research university. UBC’s two main campuses are situated in Vancouver and in Kelowna in the Okanagan Valley...

    )

Notable alumni

  • Douglas Abbott
    Douglas Abbott
    Douglas Charles Abbott, PC was a Canadian Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister. He was born in Lennoxville, Quebec. A member of the Liberal Party of Canada, Abbott served as both Minister of National Defence and Minister of Finance...

    , puisne justice
    Puisne Justice
    A Puisne Justice or Puisne Judge is the title for a regular member of a Court. This is distinguished from the head of the Court who is known as the Chief Justice or Chief Judge. The term is used almost exclusively in common law jurisdictions such as England, Australia, Kenya, Canada, Sri Lanka,...

     of the Supreme Court of Canada
    Supreme Court of Canada
    The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada and is the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, and its decisions...

  • Marie Deschamps
    Marie Deschamps
    Marie Deschamps is a puisne justice on the Supreme Court of Canada.-Education:She studied law at the Université de Montréal, graduating in 1974 and completing a Masters in 1983 at McGill.-Career:...

    , puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Ken Dryden
    Ken Dryden
    Kenneth Wayne Dryden, PC, is a Canadian politician, lawyer, businessman, author, and former NHL goaltender. Dryden is married with two children and four grandchildren and is a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame...

    , former Montreal Canadiens
    Montreal Canadiens
    The Montreal Canadiens are a professional ice hockey team based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. They are members of the Northeast Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League . The club is officially known as ...

     goaltender, cabinet minister
    Minister of Social Development (Canada)
    The Minister of Social Development is the Minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who is responsible for overseeing Social Development Canada, the federal government's department concerned with the needs of seniors, children, families and people with disabilities.On February 6, 2006, Prime...

     and Member of Parliament
  • Morris Fish
    Morris Fish
    Morris J. Fish, is a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada.Born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Aaron S. Fish and Zlata Grober, he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1959 and a Bachelor of Law in 1962 from McGill University.He practiced law mostly in Quebec for the law firm Cohen, Leithman, Kaufman,...

    , puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Désiré Girouard
    Désiré Girouard
    Désiré Girouard was a Canadian lawyer, politician, and Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada.Born in Saint-Timothée, Lower Canada , the son of Jérémie Girouard and Hyppolite Picard, he received his Bachelor of Common Law from McGill University in 1860...

    , puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Louis-Philippe de Grandpré
    Louis-Philippe de Grandpré
    Louis-Philippe de Grandpré, was a Canadian lawyer and Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada.Born in Montreal, Quebec to Roland de Grandpré and Aline Magnan, he studied at McGill University and received a BCL in 1938...

    , puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Hubert Lacroix
    Hubert Lacroix
    Hubert T. Lacroix is a Canadian lawyer and the President and CEO of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , the national public radio and television broadcaster....

    , CEO and President of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
    Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
    The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, commonly known as CBC and officially as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian crown corporation that serves as the national public radio and television broadcaster...

  • Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Prime Minister of Canada
    Prime Minister of Canada
    The Prime Minister of Canada is the primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government for Canada, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or viceroy on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution...

  • Pierre-Basile Mignault
    Pierre-Basile Mignault
    Pierre-Basile Mignault was a Canadian lawyer and Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada.Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, the son of Pierre-Basile Mignault and Catherine O'Callaghan, he received a Bachelor of Civil Law dgree from McGill University in 1878. He was called to the Quebec Bar in...

    , puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Thibaudeau Rinfret
    Thibaudeau Rinfret
    Thibaudeau Rinfret, PC was a Canadian jurist and Chief Justice of Canada and acting Governor General of Canada in 1952.-Personal life:...

    , Chief Justice
    Chief Justice
    The Chief Justice in many countries is the name for the presiding member of a Supreme Court in Commonwealth or other countries with an Anglo-Saxon justice system based on English common law, such as the Supreme Court of Canada, the Constitutional Court of South Africa, the Court of Final Appeal of...

     of the Supreme Court of Canada
  • Edward Stuart McDougall
    Edward Stuart McDougall
    Edward Stuart McDougall was a Canadian politician and judge. He was a judge on the Court of King's Bench of Quebec and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. In 1936, McDougall was briefly the Quebec minister of finance in the first government of Adélard Godbout.McDougall was born...

    , judge on the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
    International Military Tribunal for the Far East
    The International Military Tribunal for the Far East , also known as the Tokyo Trials, the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, or simply the Tribunal, was convened on April 29, 1946, to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types of crimes: "Class A" crimes were reserved for those who...


External links

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