Jovan Plamenac
Encyclopedia
Jovan Simonov Plamenac (1873-1944) was a Montenegrin
politician.
Starting out as a prominent leader of the True People's Party
in the Principality of Montenegro
, state that would soon transform into a kingdom, Plamenac was a staunch supporter of the country's monarch Prince Nikola Petrović-Njegoš
who changed his role to king in 1910. As the World War I
broke out and King Nikola secretly fled the country after it got invaded by the Central powers
, Plamenac denounced the king.
Following the war, Plamenac became one of the leaders of the Greens
and a chief protagonist of the 1919 Christmas Rebellion
in opposition to the post-war Montenegrin unification with Serbia and subsequent creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Upon fleeing to Italy in wake of the failed rebellion, Plamenac became head of the Montenegrin authorities in exile. At the post he presided over units of exiled Greens who trained in the town of Gaeta
with Italian support before being covertly shipped back home across the Adriatic where a low-level guerilla insurgency continued even after the failed rebellion. Plamenac also tried to gain political support abroad for his organization's opposition to the newly created South Slavic
state, but achieved very little in that regard.
By mid 1920s, Plamenac did a complete turnaround, deciding to cut a deal with the Kingdom of SCS authorities, which allowed him to return home where he became a centrist politician with Serbia
n People's Radical Party
of Nikola Pašić
.
He ended up as a World War II
Nazi collaborator whose activity during the war is highly disputed and controversial.
(Bar
municipality) while it was still a part of the Ottoman Empire
, before the 1878 Congress of Berlin. After finishing primary education in the Principality of Montenegro completing a lower secondary school, he went to the Kingdom of Serbia
for further studies like many Montenegrins of his age. There, he attended a Teacher-Training school in Aleksinac
and graduated in Pakrac
, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
, province within the Transleithanian part of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
. He then went to the German Empire
and attended a two-year pedagogical course in Jena
. After successfully completing it, he returned home to Montenegro and became a teacher at the Theological and Teacher-Training School in Cetinje
.
He was reemployed by Duke Mitar Martinović as Minister of Internal Affairs and Representative of the Minister of Education during the crucial time of the Balkan wars
. During them Montenegro gained most of its territory from the Ottoman Turks and a common border with Serbia was finally achieved, presenting the unification of the two realms as his top priority. During the following years of political dominance of the People's Party
, he was a Confidant of the Montenegrin Court. After the Kingdom of Montenegro
was invaded by the Central Powers
during the First World War and King Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš secretly fled the country to Italy across the sea, Plamenac denounced him heavily for treason and wrote for the Sarajevo's Bosnian Post on 6 April 1916 that it may be considered as if the king no longer exists.
. After his political course lost the elections for the Great National Assembly of the Serbian People in Montenegro
, which deposed King Nikola and declared unconditional unification with Serbia, he joined the Greens
who refused to recognize Podgorica Assembly's results and resorted to armed rebellion in order to take power in Montenegro by force and expel the Serbians and other Allies. He placed Krsto Zrnov Popović
as the commander-in-chief of the Greens' armed forces in battle. Upon hearing that an all-out armed rebellion is preparing, three days before the escalation of conflicts the Entente
High Command authorized usage of force to defend the possible hot zones. On 1 January 1919 Plamenac's partisan unit attacked the town of Virpazar
on Lake Skadar, but was repelled by Italian armed forces of Commandant Molinaro from Shkodër
.
Receiving contact with Italian armed forces at the coastline and securing an amount of basic weaponry, as Italy had influential interests in Montenegro, the real insurgency was instigated around Cetinje's on 7 January 1919. It became known as the Christmas Rebellion
. The Greens recruited peasants in the surrounding villages and quickly laid siege to Cetinje. But the Allies mounted fierce resistance, in particular the Montenegrin Youth of the pro-Serbian Whites and the French. The one-day battle was lost, between 20 and 30 Green draftees were killed and others were caught by the Allied forces. Other regiments like the one besieging Nikšić
were defeated too, the remainder hid into the forests and started guerrilla resistance which continued over the following years, committing surprise attacks on the Whites and their supporters and Plamenac escaped to Albania
to evade getting caught.
, publicly criticized the insurgency and called for all those who cherished his name and who remain loyal to him to lay down arms in the name of peace and no war between brothers. Also amazed by his capabilities, Nikola sacked Milo Matanović's eventually pro-Serbian cabinet and nominated Jovan Plamenac as the new Prime Minister of his Government in exile on 17 February 1919, in which he was also the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Representative of the Minister of Internal Affairs.
During this time Plamenac complained greatly to the international community regarding the annexation of Montenegro, on the grounds of the lack of legality for such an act. He also complained about allegations of atrocities and brutal repression conducted by the French and Serbian forces in occupied Montenegro. The International Commission mandated by the Allied Powers and approved by the League of Nations
failed to confirm this during its investigation in Montenegro, actually criticizing Plamenac and the Italians for escalation of conflicts and raising tensions in Montenegro. He also traveled as Nikola's envoy to London
, hoping for some of the pro-Montenegrin sympathies of the United Kingdom
's public. He managed to initiate a discussion over the Montenegrin question, raising the matter in the British House of Lords
, but found no greater support in it. He also wrote to the President of the United States of America Woodrow Wilson
on the terms to restore Montenegrin statehood, at least in the forms of a Confederate Yugoslavia.
By 1920 in the Italian town of Gaeta
a 1,500 men strong Army with 62 officers that was formed became financially backed by the Italian government, on the proposal of the Socialists. Plamenac's cabinet recognized the army as the legal Montenegrin Army in Exile. These forces were covertly transferred to the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, where they instigated armed incidents in Montenegro thus maintaining a form of open conflict. The greatest incident that had occurred on 6 August 1919 when members of the Montenegrin Army in Exile attacked the property of Andrija Radović
, the orchestrator of unification of Montenegro with Serbia, burned it to the ground and killed his father. Accusations of oppression of the Montenegrins by Belgrade from Plamenac's side
By late 1920 Constitutional Assembly elections took place in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Allied Powers had previously agreed to consider it a final self-determination event in Montenegro. International watchers from Britain and France concluded that the election was conducted with democratic standards and, in accordance to the fact that the strong majority of Montenegrins turned to vote despite the Greens' call for boycott and to the total victory of unionist forces, the Great powers broke off diplomatic relations to Plamenac's Government in Exile, giving a final blow to his premiership.
On 1 March 1921 Nicholas died of old age. His only son Crown Prince Danilo Aleksandar Petrović-Njegoš
similar to numerous other Montenegrin leaders in exile expressed reluctance to accept the throne so he abdicated in favor of his nephew Prince Michael Petrović-Njegoš
and remained in anonymity in Rome. Mihailo was a minor, so, in accordance to the Constitution, Jovan Plamenac declared himself co-Regent of the Kingdom together with Queen Milena Vukotić
, Nicholas' widow. The institutions were moved to San Remo
in Italy, since France broke off relations and Italy, having still had its interests in the Adriatic, decided to financially back them. By June 1921 Plamenac went into a personal conflict with the Italian Foreign Minister Sforza, so he was forced to resign from the seat of PM, leaving it behind on 28 June 1921 to General Milutin Vučinić
, but remained the key man behind as a member of the Regency. He surprisingly died soon, so Queen invited to appoint General Anto Gvozdenović
as the new Prime Minister.
, Queen Milena's residing place, and stripped the Queen of her regency, forcefully taking control over the Government in Exile and the Montenegrin Archives, proclaiming himself supreme Premier. Although Italy considered it an internal problem, it did not want to allow a conflict on its soil, reported by contemporary Italian media as a mini civil war, so eventually pro-Milena Milo Vujović managed to secure with his armed guards the structures occupied by Plamenac and temporarily control the government before the formation of Gvozdenovic's cabinet. Plamenac's belief was that the Queen Regent was not acting in the best Montenegrin interests and that she had had no jurisdiction on making such a crucial decision, being merely a regent of the underage King Danilo. However, Plamenac's acts did make the Queen Regent abandon her aims and the Montenegrin authorities in exile had further on for a couple of years continued to exist.
Desperate and looking for support, Plamenac headed to Rome to found a special council for the restoration of Montenegrin sovereignty, separate from the government which was achieving a more and more defeatist approach and had opened direct contact with the Yugoslav authorities. However, as this occurred in 1923, Italy quickly expelled him as after the Treaty of Rapalo it abandoned anti-Yugoslavian policies. Jovan Plamenac wanted to find a refuge in the United States of America, announcing a foundation of an alternate Montenegrin Government in Exile in New York
. However, his Montenegrin papers were no longer recognized anywhere in the world, so he was contained to Elsie Island as an illegal immigrant.
In 1925 he gave up in futile and withdraw from the Regency, then taken over by Gvozdenovic. In accordance to the rehabilitation program of King Alexander I Karađorđević, no charges were raised against Plamenac and he freely moved to the Yugoslavian kingdom, to Belgrade
. On 31 January 1925 he wrote in repent and swore an oath of loyalty to him:
He immediately enrolled the Yugoslavian political life as a member of the Serbian People's Radical Party
of Nikola Pašić
. He also became a Minister in the Kingdom's Government, causing an outburst of public controversy regarding his post, nevertheless King Alexander remained strictly on insistence on the matter, as part of his rehabilitation program. After Pasic's death Plamenac quickly advanced in the Radicals' hierarchy and became a vigorous supporter and advocate of its policies of centrism
. He became the regime's champion in the political fights against the Peasants of the pro-Green Montenegrin Federalist Party
, accusing it for separatism and support of Yugoslavia's destruction.
Years after, in his old age, the Axis forces invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and partitioned it in 1941. Plamenac left Belgrade for the Independent State of Montenegro puppet-state, joining the Black Latins of Sekula Drljević
and the collaboration with Fascist Italy
administration. In 1943 the Italians were defeated, and in 1944 the Communist Partisans
caught Jovan. Jovan Simonov Plamenac was subsequently read a verdict accusing him for collaboration and was subsequently executed by a firing squad.
He died in Italian-occupied Montenegro, Yugoslavia
in 1944.
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
politician.
Starting out as a prominent leader of the True People's Party
True People's Party
The True People's Party was a political party in Montenegro.Also known locally as pravaši, its members were supporters of the absolute rule of King Nikola I of Montenegro. Members included: Jovan S. Plamenac, Lazar Mijušković, Mitar Radulović, Niko Tatar and priest Krsto Popović...
in the Principality of Montenegro
Principality of Montenegro
The Principality of Montenegro was a former realm in Southeastern Europe. It existed from 13 March 1852 to 28 August 1910. It was then proclaimed a kingdom by Knjaz Nikola, who then became king....
, state that would soon transform into a kingdom, Plamenac was a staunch supporter of the country's monarch Prince Nikola Petrović-Njegoš
Nicholas I of Montenegro
Nikola I Mirkov Petrović-Njegoš was the only king of Montenegro, reigning as king from 1910 to 1918 and as prince from 1860 to 1910. He was also a poet, notably penning "Onamo, 'namo!", a popular song from Montenegro.-Early life:Nikola was born in the village of Njeguši, the ancient home of the...
who changed his role to king in 1910. As the World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
broke out and King Nikola secretly fled the country after it got invaded by the Central powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
, Plamenac denounced the king.
Following the war, Plamenac became one of the leaders of the Greens
Zelenaši
The Zelenaši were a group of Montenegrin dissidents, most notable for instigating the 1919 Christmas rebellion and later for supporting the existence of the fascist Kingdom of Montenegro during World War II....
and a chief protagonist of the 1919 Christmas Rebellion
Christmas Rebellion
*Baptist War, also known as the "Christmas Uprising" and the "Great Jamaican Slave Revolt of 1831"* Christmas Uprising - occurred in Montenegro after the First World War...
in opposition to the post-war Montenegrin unification with Serbia and subsequent creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Upon fleeing to Italy in wake of the failed rebellion, Plamenac became head of the Montenegrin authorities in exile. At the post he presided over units of exiled Greens who trained in the town of Gaeta
Gaeta
Gaeta is a city and comune in the province of Latina, in Lazio, central Italy. Set on a promontory stretching towards the Gulf of Gaeta, it is 120 km from Rome and 80 km from Naples....
with Italian support before being covertly shipped back home across the Adriatic where a low-level guerilla insurgency continued even after the failed rebellion. Plamenac also tried to gain political support abroad for his organization's opposition to the newly created South Slavic
South Slavs
The South Slavs are the southern branch of the Slavic peoples and speak South Slavic languages. Geographically, the South Slavs are native to the Balkan peninsula, the southern Pannonian Plain and the eastern Alps...
state, but achieved very little in that regard.
By mid 1920s, Plamenac did a complete turnaround, deciding to cut a deal with the Kingdom of SCS authorities, which allowed him to return home where he became a centrist politician with Serbia
Serbia
Serbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans...
n People's Radical Party
People's Radical Party
The People's Radical Party of Serbia was a political party formed on January 8, 1881, which was active in the Kingdom of Serbia and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes...
of Nikola Pašić
Nikola Pašic
Nikola P. Pašić was a Serbian and Yugoslav politician and diplomat, the most important Serbian political figure for almost 40 years, leader of the People's Radical Party who, among other posts, was twice a mayor of Belgrade...
.
He ended up as a World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
Nazi collaborator whose activity during the war is highly disputed and controversial.
Early life
Jovan Plamenac was born in 1873 in the village of BoljevićiBoljevići
Boljevići is a village in the municipality of Bratunac, Bosnia and Herzegovina.-References:...
(Bar
Bar, Montenegro
Bar is a coastal town in Montenegro. It has a population of 17,727...
municipality) while it was still a part of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, before the 1878 Congress of Berlin. After finishing primary education in the Principality of Montenegro completing a lower secondary school, he went to the Kingdom of Serbia
Kingdom of Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbia was created when Prince Milan Obrenović, ruler of the Principality of Serbia, was crowned King in 1882. The Principality of Serbia was ruled by the Karađorđevic dynasty from 1817 onwards . The Principality, suzerain to the Porte, had expelled all Ottoman troops by 1867, de...
for further studies like many Montenegrins of his age. There, he attended a Teacher-Training school in Aleksinac
Aleksinac
Aleksinac is a town which is a center of Aleksinac Municipality, located in the Nišava District of Serbia. According to 2011 census, the town has a population of 16,420 inhabitants, while the municipality has 51,462.-Name:...
and graduated in Pakrac
Pakrac
Pakrac is a town in western Slavonia, Croatia, population 4,852, total municipality population 8,482 . Pakrac is located on the road and railroad connecting the regions of Posavina and Podravina.-Name:...
, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia or Croatia Slavonia was an autonomous kingdom within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was part of the Hungarian Kingdom within the dual Austro-Hungarian state, being within the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen or Transleithania...
, province within the Transleithanian part of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
. He then went to the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
and attended a two-year pedagogical course in Jena
Jena
Jena is a university city in central Germany on the river Saale. It has a population of approx. 103,000 and is the second largest city in the federal state of Thuringia, after Erfurt.-History:Jena was first mentioned in an 1182 document...
. After successfully completing it, he returned home to Montenegro and became a teacher at the Theological and Teacher-Training School in Cetinje
Cetinje
Cetinje , Цетиње / Cetinje , Italian: Cettigne, Greek: Κετίγνη, Ketígni) is a town and Old Royal Capital of Montenegro. It is also a historical and the secondary capital of Montenegro , with the official residence of the President of Montenegro...
.
Political career in Montenegro
From 1907 until 1909, Plamenac served as the Minister of Education in the government of Lazar Tomanović. During his time in office, he wanted control over some military affairs allocated the Ministry of Interior until the government's mandate expired in 1910, when the Princedom was transformed into a Kingdom.He was reemployed by Duke Mitar Martinović as Minister of Internal Affairs and Representative of the Minister of Education during the crucial time of the Balkan wars
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...
. During them Montenegro gained most of its territory from the Ottoman Turks and a common border with Serbia was finally achieved, presenting the unification of the two realms as his top priority. During the following years of political dominance of the People's Party
People's Party (Montenegro)
The People's Party is an opposition populist political party in Montenegro. It is the main conservative party in Montenegro, as opposed to ruling party and its main opposition, both of which are socialist orientated.At the last legislative elections in Montenegro, in March 2009, NS formed a...
, he was a Confidant of the Montenegrin Court. After the Kingdom of Montenegro
Kingdom of Montenegro
The Kingdom of Montenegro was a monarchy in southeastern Europe during the tumultuous years on the Balkan Peninsula leading up to and during World War I. Legally it was a constitutional monarchy, but absolutist in practice...
was invaded by the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
during the First World War and King Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš secretly fled the country to Italy across the sea, Plamenac denounced him heavily for treason and wrote for the Sarajevo's Bosnian Post on 6 April 1916 that it may be considered as if the king no longer exists.
Christmas rebellion
By 1918 Montenegrin units, the Comitas, devastated the occupier greatly and Allies broke into the country by the end of the year. With the resistance declaring a greater unified Serbian state and movements evidently being made towards Serbia's annexation of Montenegro, he became a fierce opponent of any sort of unificationCreation of Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia was a statist concept among the South Slavic intelligentsia and later popular masses from the 17th to early 20th centuries that culminated in the realization of the ideal with the 1918 collapse of Habsburg Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I and the formation of the Kingdom of...
. After his political course lost the elections for the Great National Assembly of the Serbian People in Montenegro
Podgorica Assembly
The Podgorica Assembly , in full the Great National Assembly of the Serb People in Montenegro , was an assembly held in Podgorica that served as the representative body of the Montenegrin people during the...
, which deposed King Nikola and declared unconditional unification with Serbia, he joined the Greens
Zelenaši
The Zelenaši were a group of Montenegrin dissidents, most notable for instigating the 1919 Christmas rebellion and later for supporting the existence of the fascist Kingdom of Montenegro during World War II....
who refused to recognize Podgorica Assembly's results and resorted to armed rebellion in order to take power in Montenegro by force and expel the Serbians and other Allies. He placed Krsto Zrnov Popović
Krsto Žrnov Popovic
Captain Krsto Todorov-Zrnov Popović was one of the leaders of 1919 Christmas Uprising in Montenegro against Serbian dynasty Karađorđević, organized by the greens , followers of dethroned King Nikola and Montenegrin dynasty Petrović-Njegoš...
as the commander-in-chief of the Greens' armed forces in battle. Upon hearing that an all-out armed rebellion is preparing, three days before the escalation of conflicts the Entente
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
High Command authorized usage of force to defend the possible hot zones. On 1 January 1919 Plamenac's partisan unit attacked the town of Virpazar
Virpazar
Virpazar is a town in the Bar, Montenegro municipality, Montenegro. It is located in the Crmnica region, on the shore of Skadar Lake. According to 2003 census, it has a population of 337. It is a stop on the Belgrade - Bar railway, and is home to Virpazar hotel, a picturesque lakeshore hotel....
on Lake Skadar, but was repelled by Italian armed forces of Commandant Molinaro from Shkodër
Shkodër
Shkodër , is a city located on Lake of Shkoder in northwestern Albania in the District of Shkodër, of which it is the capital. It is one of the oldest and most historic towns in Albania, as well as an important cultural and economic centre. Shkodër's estimated population is 90,000; if the...
.
Receiving contact with Italian armed forces at the coastline and securing an amount of basic weaponry, as Italy had influential interests in Montenegro, the real insurgency was instigated around Cetinje's on 7 January 1919. It became known as the Christmas Rebellion
Christmas Rebellion
*Baptist War, also known as the "Christmas Uprising" and the "Great Jamaican Slave Revolt of 1831"* Christmas Uprising - occurred in Montenegro after the First World War...
. The Greens recruited peasants in the surrounding villages and quickly laid siege to Cetinje. But the Allies mounted fierce resistance, in particular the Montenegrin Youth of the pro-Serbian Whites and the French. The one-day battle was lost, between 20 and 30 Green draftees were killed and others were caught by the Allied forces. Other regiments like the one besieging Nikšić
Nikšić
Nikšić is a city in Montenegro . In 2003 the city had a total population about 75,000.Nikšić is located in Nikšić plain, at the foot of Mount Trebjesa. It is the center of the municipality , which is the largest in Montenegro by area...
were defeated too, the remainder hid into the forests and started guerrilla resistance which continued over the following years, committing surprise attacks on the Whites and their supporters and Plamenac escaped to Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
to evade getting caught.
In exile
Exiled King Nikola, living in the French town of NeuillyNeuilly
Neuilly is a common place name in France, deriving from the male given name Nobilis or Novellius:...
, publicly criticized the insurgency and called for all those who cherished his name and who remain loyal to him to lay down arms in the name of peace and no war between brothers. Also amazed by his capabilities, Nikola sacked Milo Matanović's eventually pro-Serbian cabinet and nominated Jovan Plamenac as the new Prime Minister of his Government in exile on 17 February 1919, in which he was also the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Representative of the Minister of Internal Affairs.
During this time Plamenac complained greatly to the international community regarding the annexation of Montenegro, on the grounds of the lack of legality for such an act. He also complained about allegations of atrocities and brutal repression conducted by the French and Serbian forces in occupied Montenegro. The International Commission mandated by the Allied Powers and approved by the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
failed to confirm this during its investigation in Montenegro, actually criticizing Plamenac and the Italians for escalation of conflicts and raising tensions in Montenegro. He also traveled as Nikola's envoy to London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
, hoping for some of the pro-Montenegrin sympathies of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
's public. He managed to initiate a discussion over the Montenegrin question, raising the matter in the British House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
, but found no greater support in it. He also wrote to the President of the United States of America Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
on the terms to restore Montenegrin statehood, at least in the forms of a Confederate Yugoslavia.
By 1920 in the Italian town of Gaeta
Gaeta
Gaeta is a city and comune in the province of Latina, in Lazio, central Italy. Set on a promontory stretching towards the Gulf of Gaeta, it is 120 km from Rome and 80 km from Naples....
a 1,500 men strong Army with 62 officers that was formed became financially backed by the Italian government, on the proposal of the Socialists. Plamenac's cabinet recognized the army as the legal Montenegrin Army in Exile. These forces were covertly transferred to the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, where they instigated armed incidents in Montenegro thus maintaining a form of open conflict. The greatest incident that had occurred on 6 August 1919 when members of the Montenegrin Army in Exile attacked the property of Andrija Radović
Andrija Radovic
Andrija Radović was a Montenegrin and Yugoslavian politician & statesmen, former Prime Minister and leader of the People's and then Democratic Party, fighter for parliamentary democracy and chief proponent of Montenegro's unification with Serbia.-Youth:Andrija Radović was born to father Jagoš in...
, the orchestrator of unification of Montenegro with Serbia, burned it to the ground and killed his father. Accusations of oppression of the Montenegrins by Belgrade from Plamenac's side
By late 1920 Constitutional Assembly elections took place in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Allied Powers had previously agreed to consider it a final self-determination event in Montenegro. International watchers from Britain and France concluded that the election was conducted with democratic standards and, in accordance to the fact that the strong majority of Montenegrins turned to vote despite the Greens' call for boycott and to the total victory of unionist forces, the Great powers broke off diplomatic relations to Plamenac's Government in Exile, giving a final blow to his premiership.
On 1 March 1921 Nicholas died of old age. His only son Crown Prince Danilo Aleksandar Petrović-Njegoš
Danilo, Crown Prince of Montenegro
Danilo Aleksandar Petrović-Njegoš was the Crown Prince of Montenegro. He was eldest of the son of King Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro and Queen Milena Vukotić. During the Balkan Wars and World War I he led the Montenegrin Army with his father, King Nicholas I of Montenegro, Janko Vukotić,...
similar to numerous other Montenegrin leaders in exile expressed reluctance to accept the throne so he abdicated in favor of his nephew Prince Michael Petrović-Njegoš
Prince Michael of Montenegro
Prince Michael Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro was the third son of Prince Mirko Petrović-Njegoš, Grand Voivode of Grahovo and Zeta , and Natalija Konstantinovic, a cousin of Aleksandar Obrenović of Serbia...
and remained in anonymity in Rome. Mihailo was a minor, so, in accordance to the Constitution, Jovan Plamenac declared himself co-Regent of the Kingdom together with Queen Milena Vukotić
Milena Vukotic
Milena Vukotic is a former ballerina and a stage, television, and film actress.Vukotic was born in Rome, to a Serbian Montenegrian comediographer father and an Italian pianist/composer mother....
, Nicholas' widow. The institutions were moved to San Remo
Sanremo
Sanremo or San Remo is a city with about 57,000 inhabitants on the Mediterranean coast of western Liguria in north-western Italy. Founded in Roman times, the city is best known as a tourist destination on the Italian Riviera. It hosts numerous cultural events, such as the Sanremo Music Festival...
in Italy, since France broke off relations and Italy, having still had its interests in the Adriatic, decided to financially back them. By June 1921 Plamenac went into a personal conflict with the Italian Foreign Minister Sforza, so he was forced to resign from the seat of PM, leaving it behind on 28 June 1921 to General Milutin Vučinić
Milutin Vucinic
Milutin Mijajlov Vučinić was a Montenegrin soldier and politician.-Biography:...
, but remained the key man behind as a member of the Regency. He surprisingly died soon, so Queen invited to appoint General Anto Gvozdenović
Anto Gvozdenovic
Anto Gvozdenović was a Montenegrin, Russian, and French general, a member of the Imperial Russian Privy Council, and a diplomat and statesman...
as the new Prime Minister.
Return to Kingdom of SCS
Montenegrin Queen Regent Milena came from a strong pro-Serbian unionist family, so she eventually decided to disband the Montenegrin Government in Exile and abolish any Montenegrin resistance to Serbo-Croato-Slovene unity, also tired of the years of disputes and fighting. Fiercely opposing this, Plamenac besieged and assaulted with 20 armed men the Montenegrin Consulate at RivieraRiviera
Riviera is an Italian term originally from the Middle Ages for the coast of Liguria. The term is now more generally applied to any coastal area popular with tourists, particularly in warm areas...
, Queen Milena's residing place, and stripped the Queen of her regency, forcefully taking control over the Government in Exile and the Montenegrin Archives, proclaiming himself supreme Premier. Although Italy considered it an internal problem, it did not want to allow a conflict on its soil, reported by contemporary Italian media as a mini civil war, so eventually pro-Milena Milo Vujović managed to secure with his armed guards the structures occupied by Plamenac and temporarily control the government before the formation of Gvozdenovic's cabinet. Plamenac's belief was that the Queen Regent was not acting in the best Montenegrin interests and that she had had no jurisdiction on making such a crucial decision, being merely a regent of the underage King Danilo. However, Plamenac's acts did make the Queen Regent abandon her aims and the Montenegrin authorities in exile had further on for a couple of years continued to exist.
Desperate and looking for support, Plamenac headed to Rome to found a special council for the restoration of Montenegrin sovereignty, separate from the government which was achieving a more and more defeatist approach and had opened direct contact with the Yugoslav authorities. However, as this occurred in 1923, Italy quickly expelled him as after the Treaty of Rapalo it abandoned anti-Yugoslavian policies. Jovan Plamenac wanted to find a refuge in the United States of America, announcing a foundation of an alternate Montenegrin Government in Exile in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. However, his Montenegrin papers were no longer recognized anywhere in the world, so he was contained to Elsie Island as an illegal immigrant.
In 1925 he gave up in futile and withdraw from the Regency, then taken over by Gvozdenovic. In accordance to the rehabilitation program of King Alexander I Karađorđević, no charges were raised against Plamenac and he freely moved to the Yugoslavian kingdom, to Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. According to official results of Census 2011, the city has a population of 1,639,121. It is one of the 15 largest cities in Europe...
. On 31 January 1925 he wrote in repent and swore an oath of loyalty to him:
He immediately enrolled the Yugoslavian political life as a member of the Serbian People's Radical Party
Serbian People's Radical Party
The Serbian People's Radical Party was an ethnic Serb political party in Austria-Hungary.It was a sister party of the People's Radical Party in Serbia....
of Nikola Pašić
Nikola Pašic
Nikola P. Pašić was a Serbian and Yugoslav politician and diplomat, the most important Serbian political figure for almost 40 years, leader of the People's Radical Party who, among other posts, was twice a mayor of Belgrade...
. He also became a Minister in the Kingdom's Government, causing an outburst of public controversy regarding his post, nevertheless King Alexander remained strictly on insistence on the matter, as part of his rehabilitation program. After Pasic's death Plamenac quickly advanced in the Radicals' hierarchy and became a vigorous supporter and advocate of its policies of centrism
Centrism
In politics, centrism is the ideal or the practice of promoting policies that lie different from the standard political left and political right. Most commonly, this is visualized as part of the one-dimensional political spectrum of left-right politics, with centrism landing in the middle between...
. He became the regime's champion in the political fights against the Peasants of the pro-Green Montenegrin Federalist Party
Montenegrin Federalist Party
The Montenegrin Federalist Party or Montenegrin Peasants' Federalist Movement was a Montenegrin political party in the Kingdom of Serbs,...
, accusing it for separatism and support of Yugoslavia's destruction.
Years after, in his old age, the Axis forces invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and partitioned it in 1941. Plamenac left Belgrade for the Independent State of Montenegro puppet-state, joining the Black Latins of Sekula Drljević
Sekula Drljevic
Sekula Drljević, also transcribed as Sekule Drljević , was a WWII Montenegrin Nazi-fascist collaborator....
and the collaboration with Fascist Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
administration. In 1943 the Italians were defeated, and in 1944 the Communist Partisans
Partisans (Yugoslavia)
The Yugoslav Partisans, or simply the Partisans were a Communist-led World War II anti-fascist resistance movement in Yugoslavia...
caught Jovan. Jovan Simonov Plamenac was subsequently read a verdict accusing him for collaboration and was subsequently executed by a firing squad.
He died in Italian-occupied Montenegro, Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
in 1944.