Indian removals in Indiana - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Indian removals in Indiana began in the early 1830s and was mostly completed by 1846. The removals were preceded by several treaties, beginning in 1795, that gradually purchased most of the state from various tribes. The removals were part of a larger nationwide Indian Removal Act

Indian Removal Act

The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830.The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South, where states were eager to gain access to lands inhabited by the Five Civilized Tribes. In particular, Georgia, the largest state at that time, was involved in...

passed by the United States Congress

United States Congress

The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....

and being carried out by the administration of United States President Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States . Based in frontier Tennessee, Jackson was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , and the British at the Battle of New Orleans...

. By the time the removals began to occur, most of the tribes, like the Shawnee

Shawnee

The Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki, are an Algonquian-speaking people native to North America. Historically they inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania...

and the Wea

Wea

The Wea were a Miami-Illinois-speaking tribe originally located in western Indiana, closely related to the Miami. The name Wea is used today as the a shortened version of their many recorded names...

, had left the state voluntarily, migrating into Canada

Canada

Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

and Missouri

Missouri

Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...

. The only significant tribes remaining were the Miami and the Potawatomi

Potawatomi

The Potawatomi are a Native American people of the upper Mississippi River region. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a member of the Algonquian family. In the Potawatomi language, they generally call themselves Bodéwadmi, a name that means "keepers of the fire" and that was applied...

, both of which were already confined to reservation from previously signed treaties.

The largest tribe in the state, the Miami Tribe, was the last to be removed, although many in the tribe were permitted to remain on lands they owned privately, and guaranteed to them under the Treaty of St. Mary's

Treaty of St. Mary's

The Treaty of St. Mary's was signed on October 6, 1818 at Saint Mary's, Ohio between representatives of the United States and the Miami tribe and others living in their territory. The accord contained seven articles. Based on the terms of the accord, the Miami ceded to the United States...

. The terms of the treaties were considered generous at the time, and all Indians except the village of 859 Potawatomi, led by Chief Menominee, voluntarily left the state. The tribe of Chief Menominee were forcibly removed in the 1838 Potawatomi Trail of Death

Potawatomi Trail of Death

The Potawatomi Trail of Death was the forced removal by United States forces from September 4 to November 4, 1838, of 859 members of the Potawatomi nation from Twin Lakes near Plymouth, Indiana, to the location of present-day Osawatomie, Kansas, a distance of . Typhoid fever and the stress of the...

, where at least forty members of the tribe died. The Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians

Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians

Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians are Algonquian-speaking Potawatomi-people located in southwestern Michigan and northeastern Indiana. Tribal government functions are located in Dowagiac, Michigan. The tribal membership has grown to approximately 4,563 members as of 2009. Pokagons originated as a...

were the only other Indians left in the state after the end of the removals.

Background

The Algonquian Tribes

Algonquian peoples

The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds. Today hundreds of thousands of individuals identify with various Algonquian peoples...

that had previously lived in Indiana returned to the area near the close of the Beaver Wars

Beaver Wars

The Beaver Wars, also sometimes called the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars, commonly refers to a series of conflicts fought in the mid-17th century in eastern North America...

, after their confederacy gained the upper hand in the war with the Iroquois

Iroquois

The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...

. By 1701, when the Great Peace of Montreal

Great Peace of Montreal

The Great Peace of Montreal was a peace treaty between New France and 40 First Nations of North America. It was signed on August 4, 1701, by Louis-Hector de Callière, governor of New France, and 1300 representatives of 40 aboriginal nations of the North East of North America...

was established, most of the tribes had returned. The Miami were dominant in the region, but the Potawatomi

Potawatomi

and Shawnee

Shawnee

both had a significant presence in northern and western Indiana, respectively.

When the Indiana Territory

Indiana Territory

The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, 1800, until November 7, 1816, when the southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana....

was established in 1800, there were two American settlements in what would become modern Indiana—Vincennes

Vincennes, Indiana

Vincennes is a city in and the county seat of Knox County, Indiana, United States. It is located on the Wabash River in the southwestern part of the state. The population was 18,701 at the 2000 census...

and Clark's Grant

Clarksville, Indiana

Clarksville is a town in Clark County, Indiana, United States, along the Ohio River as a part of the Louisville Metropolitan area. The population was 21,724 at the 2010 census. The town, once a home site to George Rogers Clark, was founded in 1783 and is the oldest American town in the Northwest...

—both were on the southern periphery of the state near the Ohio River. Early settlement was confined to those areas; most of the state was still occupied by native tribes, except for a small section taken by the Treaty of Greenville

Treaty of Greenville

The Treaty of Greenville was signed at Fort Greenville , on August 3, 1795, between a coalition of Native Americans & Frontiers men, known as the Western Confederacy, and the United States following the Native American loss at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. It put an end to the Northwest Indian War...

at the conclusion of the Northwest Indian War

Northwest Indian War

The Northwest Indian War , also known as Little Turtle's War and by various other names, was a war fought between the United States and a confederation of numerous American Indian tribes for control of the Northwest Territory...

.

The Miami Tribe was the largest tribe in Indiana and claimed ownership of the entire state, but they were mostly settled in the central and northern part of Indiana, and also held a large part of north-west Ohio

Ohio

Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...

. The Potawatomi were centered in modern Michigan

Michigan

Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....

, but had several settlements in northern Indiana. At the end of the French and Indian Wars

French and Indian Wars

The French and Indian Wars is a name used in the United States for a series of conflicts lasting 74 years in North America that represented colonial events related to the European dynastic wars...

(Seven Years War), the Miami allowed the Shawnee

Shawnee

to settle in west-central Indiana after they were driven out of Ohio by the Iroquois. Other minor tribes, mostly Algonquian speaking, including the Wea

Wea

The Wea were a Miami-Illinois-speaking tribe originally located in western Indiana, closely related to the Miami. The name Wea is used today as the a shortened version of their many recorded names...

, Lenape

Lenape

The Lenape are an Algonquian group of Native Americans of the Northeastern Woodlands. They are also called Delaware Indians. As a result of the American Revolutionary War and later Indian removals from the eastern United States, today the main groups live in Canada, where they are enrolled in the...

, Piankeshaw

Piankeshaw

The Piankeshaw Indians were Native Americans, and members of the Miami Indians who lived apart from the rest of the Miami nation. They lived in an area that now includes western Indiana and Ohio, and were closely allied with the Wea Indians...

, Wyandott, and the Kickapoo, were scattered across the state. Prior to the Beaver Wars, the Miami had been the dominant residents of Indiana, and afterward they permitted other smaller, displaced tribes to settle within their borders. European-American colonists named the area Indiana Territory because it had so many Native Americans.

Treaties with Harrison

When William Henry Harrison

William Henry Harrison

William Henry Harrison was the ninth President of the United States , an American military officer and politician, and the first president to die in office. He was 68 years, 23 days old when elected, the oldest president elected until Ronald Reagan in 1980, and last President to be born before the...

was appointed governor of the territory in 1800, he initially had no power to negotiate with the tribes. In 1803, he was granted authority to conduct negotiations with the tribes to open up new land for settlement, primarily to settle the American claim to the Vincennes tract. The Vincennes Tract and Clark's Grant were the only parts of the state that were open to settlement during the early years of the territory. The Vincennes Tract had been purchased by the French

Kingdom of France

The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...

from the natives in the mid-18th century and transferred to Great Britain

Great Britain

Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...

after the French and Indian War, and finally to the Americans at the end of the American Revolution

American Revolution

The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...

. Clark's Grant was awarded to George Rogers Clark

George Rogers Clark

George Rogers Clark was a soldier from Virginia and the highest ranking American military officer on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War. He served as leader of the Kentucky militia throughout much of the war...

for his part in the American Revolution, and was held by right of conquest. Harrison's first treaty in 1803, the Treaty of Vincennes

Treaty of Vincennes

The Treaty of Vincennes is the name of two separate treaties. One was an 1803 agreement between the United States of America and the Miami and their allies, the Wea tribes and the Shawnee...

, was to get the Wea and the Miami to recognize American ownership of the tract.
The first significant treaty to expand the area open for settlement, was negotiated in 1805 at Harrison's home

Grouseland

Grouseland, the William Henry Harrison Mansion and Museum, is a National Historic Landmark in architectural and historical fields. Grouseland is a large, two-story red brick home built for William Henry Harrison in Vincennes, Indiana, during his term as Governor of the Indiana Territory...

in Vincennes. The Treaty of Grouseland

Treaty of Grouseland

The Treaty of Grouseland was an agreement negotiated by Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory on behalf of the government of the United States of America with Native American leaders, including Little Turtle and Buckongahelas, for lands in Southern Indiana, northeast Indiana, and...

purchased all the land in southern Indiana

Southern Indiana

Southern Indiana, in the United States, consists of the 33 counties located in the southernmost part of the state. The region's history and geography has led to a blend of Northern and Southern culture distinct from the remainder of Indiana. It is often considered to be part of the Upland South...

south of the Grouseland Line. The line started at the north-eastern corner of the Vincennes Tract and passed east north-east to Greenville Treaty Line. Settlers, like Squire Boone

Squire Boone

Squire Boone Jr. was an American pioneer and brother of Daniel Boone. In 1780, he founded the first settlement in Shelby County, Kentucky. The tenth of eleven children, Squire Boone was born to Nathan "Squire" Boone Sr. and his wife Sarah Boone in Berks County, Pennsylvania at the Daniel Boone...

, moved quickly into the new land, establishing new towns like Corydon

Corydon, Indiana

Corydon is a town in Harrison Township, Harrison County, Indiana, United States, founded in 1808, and is known as Indiana's First State Capital. After Vincennes, Corydon was the second capital of the Indiana Territory from May 1, 1813, until December 11, 1816. After statehood, the town was the...

—the future capitol—in 1808, and Madison

Madison, Indiana

As of the census of 2000, there were 12,004 people, 5,092 households, and 3,085 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,402.9 people per square mile . There were 5,597 housing units at an average density of 654.1 per square mile...

in 1809.

The next major treaty was the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, in which Harrison purchased 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of land from the Miami. The Shawnee were not included in the negotiations, and the western tract of land which the Miami sold was inhabited by the Shawnee. The Shawnee were angered by the treaty, and because Harrison refused to rescind it, the treaty contributed directly to Tecumseh's War

Tecumseh's War

Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion are terms sometimes used to describe a conflict in the Old Northwest between the United States and an American Indian confederacy led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh...

. Harrison's victory in the conflict led to the enforcement of the terms of the treaty. In total, Harrison concluded thirteen treaties purchasing land across the Northwest, for a total of more than 2.5 million acres (10,000 km²) of land in Indiana. With a third of Indiana open to European-American settlement, the United States did not have to expand its area of control until after Indiana gained statehood.

Following Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812

War of 1812

The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...

, the United States began to change its policy from coexistence with the Indians to a removal of tribes to the west beyond the Mississippi River. This was largely resulting from hostile activities of the northwestern Indians during the war.

On August 30, 1815, after the War of 1812, Thomas Posey

Thomas Posey

Thomas Posey was an officer in the American Revolution, a general during peacetime, the third Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, Governor of the Indiana Territory, and a Louisiana Senator.-Family and background:...

negotiated a treaty with the ten chiefs of the Kickapoo

Kickapoo

The Kickapoo are an Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe. According to the Anishinaabeg, the name "Kickapoo" means "Stands here and there". It referred to the tribe's migratory patterns. The name can also mean "wanderer"...

. The tribe had become unhappy with settlers who were squatting on their land, and Posey hoped to avoid any escalation. He purchased all their land in Indiana, which was most of present-day Vermillion County

Vermillion County, Indiana

Vermillion County lies in western Indiana between the Illinois border and the Wabash River. It was officially established in 1824 and was the 50th Indiana county to be formed. It is included in the Terre Haute, Indiana, Metropolitan Statistical Area. The county seat is Newport.According to the 2010...

, for blankets, weapons, hatchets, and trinkets totaling $3,000 in value, and an annual annuity of $2,000 in silver for ten years. The treaty was not recognized by the Miami, who claimed the Kickapoos' land, but European-American pioneers continued to settle in the area.

Treaties after statehood

In 1818 Jonathan Jennings

Jonathan Jennings

Jonathan Jennings was the first Governor of Indiana and a nine-term congressman from Indiana. Born in Readington, New Jersey, he studied law with his brother before immigrating to Indiana in 1806 where he took part in land speculation...

, the first Governor of Indiana

Governor of Indiana

The Governor of Indiana is the chief executive of the state of Indiana. The governor is elected to a four-year term, and responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other statewide...

, negotiated the Treaty of St. Mary's

Treaty of St. Mary's

with the tribes of central Indiana. The treaty was negotiated successfully, purchasing all the land south of the Wabash River except for a reservation for the Miami between the Eel River and the Salamanie River. The method by which the lands were assigned privately to members of the tribe would later protect the Miami in that reservation from Indian removals. The Miami were in good standing with the state because they had remained loyal during the War of 1812

War of 1812

, and had opposed Tecumseh

Tecumseh

Tecumseh was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy which opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812...

. The Wea, who inhabited the area around modern Lafayette

Lafayette, Indiana

Lafayette is a city in and the county seat of Tippecanoe County, Indiana, United States, northwest of Indianapolis. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 67,140. West Lafayette, on the other side of the Wabash River, is home to Purdue University, which has a large impact on...

, were given compensation for their land and the tribe left Indiana for the west. The treaty also purchased a narrow tract of land through the Potawatomi lands for the construction of the Michigan Road. In the Treaty the Miami also recognized the validity of an earlier treaty with the Kickapoo, leading to the Kickapoo tribe also leaving the state for the west.

A second agreement was reached in 1819 when all the tribes were invited to attend a meeting to create a trading agreement between the state and the tribes. The trade with the natives was one of the most lucrative enterprises in the state and the government sought to setup and monopoly on the trade and create trading houses to tax the transfer of goods. In exchange for agreeing to such a system, the tribes were granted annual payments from the state. The Weas were granted $3,000 annually, $2,500 to the Potawatomi, $4,000 to the Delaware, and $15,000 to the Miami, with smaller amounts going to other lesser groups. These annuities were accompanied by additional gifts to leaders of the tribes which usually was near the same value of the payments. The tribes agreed to an annual meetings at a trading grounds near Fort Wayne

Fort Wayne, Indiana

Fort Wayne is a city in the US state of Indiana and the county seat of Allen County. The population was 253,691 at the 2010 Census making it the 74th largest city in the United States and the second largest in Indiana...

, where the annuities would be paid out and tribes could sell their goods to traders. The annual event was the most important trading enterprise in the state from 1820 until 1840. Traders would gather and offer goods to the tribes, often at high prices. The tribes would sign off on the bills and the traders would taken them back to the Indian agent who would pay the bill out of tribes annuity. Many of the leading politicians in the state, including Jonathan Jennings

Jonathan Jennings

and John W. Davis

John W. Davis

John William Davis was an American politician, diplomat and lawyer. He served as a United States Representative from West Virginia , then as Solicitor General of the United States and US Ambassador to the UK under President Woodrow Wilson...

, took active part in the trade making significant profits in the enterprise. The treaty was renegotiated in October 1832 and the tribes were granted larger annuities totaling $365,729.87.

The Lenape lived in the central part of Indiana around modern Indianapolis. Besides opening up central Indiana, the Lenape

Lenape

tribe agreed to leave Indiana as part of the Treaty of St. Mary's, and settle on lands provided for them in the Kansas. In exchange for leaving the state, the tribe was granted gifts and an annuity totaling $15,500. Most of the tribe left during August and September 1820.

Following the 1818 treaty, and the years of peace following the War of 1812, the state took a more conciliatory approach to relations with the tribes and embarked on a plan to "civilize" their members rather than remove them from the state. Using federal grants, several mission schools were opened to educate the tribes and promote Christianity. The missions however were largely ineffective in meeting their goals. The trade agreement was abolished in 1822 leading to a return to the abusive trade practices of earlier decades. The traders frequently used liquor to drunken their customers and take advantage of them.

The Treaty of Chicago

Treaty of Chicago

The Treaty of Chicago may refer to either of two treaties made and signed in Chicago, Illinois between the United States and the Ottawa, Ojibwe , and Potawatomi Native American peoples.-1821 Treaty of Chicago:...

was negotiated between the Michigan Potawatomi tribe and the US government opened up a narrow tract of land north of the southern tip of Lake Michigan

Lake Michigan

Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. It is the second largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third largest by surface area, after Lake Superior and Lake Huron...

, and as far west as South Bend

South Bend, Indiana

The city of South Bend is the county seat of St. Joseph County, Indiana, United States, on the St. Joseph River near its southernmost bend, from which it derives its name. As of the 2010 Census, the city had a total of 101,168 residents; its Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 316,663...

. The 1826 Treaty of Mississinwas

Treaty of Mississinwas

The Treaty of Mississiniwas or the Treaty of Mississinewa is an 1826 treaty between the United States and the Miami tribe.-Terms:After negotiations with the Pottawatomie to build the Michigan Road through Indiana by James B...

with the Miami and Pottawatomie most of what remained of the Miami reservation in north-western Indiana and north-eastern Ohio, and confined the Miami to their reservation along the Wabash River they obtained through the Treaty of St. Mary's, and opening up land in Kansas and Missouri for the tribe to move to.

Removals

In 1830 the Indian Removal Act

Indian Removal Act

was passed by the United States Congress

United States Congress

. The state at first did not attempts any removals by the act, but following the 1832 Black Hawk War

Black Hawk War

The Black Hawk War was a brief conflict fought in 1832 between the United States and Native Americans headed by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted soon after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis, and Kickapoos known as the "British Band" crossed the Mississippi River into the U.S....

in neighboring Illinois, fear of the tribes grew and and organized effort to remove them from the state began. In July 1832 the Indian Services Bureau of the state was reorganized. Funds were appropriated to hold meetings with tribal leaders and offer inducements for them to leave the state for lands in the west. Although, in theory, the removals were supposed to voluntary, considerable pressure was put on tribal leaders to accept relocation agreements. Congress empowered President Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson

to offer any native tribes in existing states land on the west side of the Mississippi River

Mississippi River

The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...

in exchange for their territory.

Potawatomi

The rising tensions following the Black Hawk War had also caused alarm among the tribes. The tribes were now far outnumbered by the settlers, and resistance was thought to be futile by most of the tribal leaders. They instead encouraged their people to take the best deal for their land that could be taken, and to take the deals while they were still in a position to negotiate. In 1833 Indian agents began going through the communities of Potawatomi in the north and offering lucrative deals and land in the west in exchange for their land in Indiana. Many accepted the terms and the government paid for the transport of their households to their new homes. The same type of negotiations was began with other tribes in the states with similar success. The 1832 Treaty of Tippecanoe

Treaty of Tippecanoe

The Treaty of Tippecanoe was an agreement between the United States government and Native American tribes in Indiana on October 26, 1832.-Treaty:...

purchased north-eastern Indiana, leading to most of the minor tribes still remaining in Indiana to leave the state. More land was opened to them in Kansas and Missouri, but some of the tribes went even further north and west. The treaty also cut Potawatomi holdings to a tract of land along the Yellow River

Yellow River (Indiana)

The Yellow River is a tributary of the Kankakee River in northern Indiana in the United States. Via the Kankakee and Illinois rivers, it is part of the watershed of the Mississippi River, draining an area of...

. Most of the tribes had already left the state by 1835.
In 1836 the Treaty of Yellow River was negotiated with the Potawatomi, with the goal of purchasing all their remaining lands in Indiana. The tribe was offered $1 per acre for their land and a 320 acres (1.3 km²) parcel of land for each member of the tribe in Kansas, in addition to other guarantees. The treaty was overwhelming approved and most of the tribe moved to Kansas, where they remained until modern times. The village near Twin Lakes, led by Chief Menominee, refused to take part in the negotiations and did not recognize the treaty's authority over his band. The whole tribe was required to vacate their land by 1838, but Menominee refused. In September 1838, Governor David Wallace authorized General John Tipton

John Tipton

John Shields Tipton was an American politician.Tipton was born in what is now Sevier County, Tennessee. His father was killed by Native Americans. His great uncle, also named John, was a prominent man in the area...

to remove the tribe in what became known as the Potawatomi Trail of Death

Potawatomi Trail of Death

. The group of 859 Potawatomi were force marched to Kansas, killing at least 40.

Miami

During the mid 1830s, many of the Miami villages were also convinced to leave the state under lucrative terms. Later treaties led to most of the remaining Miami leaving the state, all in exchange for compensation and tracts of land in the west. In the 1840 Treaty of the Wabash, two thirds of the Miami Reservation was sold, but much of the tribe was permitted to remain on the land as private landholders under the terms of the Treaty of St. Mary's. The remaining part of the reservation was sold in 1846 under a similar agreement. In all, about half of the Miami left Indiana in exchange for compensation and land in the west.

External links

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