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History of the Philippines (1946-1965)
Encyclopedia
This article covers the history of the Philippines
from the recognition of independence in 1946 to the end of the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal
, which covered much of the Third Republic of the Philippines which ended in 1972.
Filipino historians point out that independence in 1946 came with numerous strings attached. The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, independence was qualified by legislation passed by the U.S. Congress to ensure that the Philippines would remain an economic ward of the U.S., for the time being.
For example, the Bell Trade Act
prohibited the Philippines from manufacturing or selling any products that might "come into substantial competition" with U.S.-made goods. It further required that the Philippine Constitution be revised to grant U.S. citizens and corporations equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources. In hearings before the Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William L. Clayton
described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."
But the Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for independence. The U.S. Congress was threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged on July 2, 1946.
The Philippines celebrates its Independence Day
in recognition of June 12, 1898, when the Philippines declared its independence from Spain, although its independence was not recognized until July 4, 1946, by the United States. From 1946 to 1961, the Philippines observed Independence Day on July 4 each year. In 1962, President Macapagal on 12 May issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, proclaiming Tuesday, June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines. In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.
as Senate President. In the Philippine national elections of 1946
, Roxas ran for president as the nominee of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party
. He had the staunch support of General MacArthur. His opponent was Sergio Osmeña
, who refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew his reputation. In the April 23, 1946 election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature. When the Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, Roxas became the first president of the new republic.
Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restrictions for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owners and investors. His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap
(Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection.
Roxas did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Clark Air Base on April 15, 1948. He was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino
.
Quirino assumed the presidency on April 17, 1948, taking his oath of office two days after the death of Manuel Roxas
. The next year, he was elected president on his own right for a four-year term as the candidate of the Liberal Party
, defeating Jose P. Laurel
of the Nacionalista Party.
Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky
would serve as the official hostess and perform the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady
.
Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist Hukbalahap movement. Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis Taruc
broke down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government.
His six years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.
In 1950, the administration of president Quirino was beginning the Korean War
and over 7,450 Filipino soldiers were sent to Korea under
the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea
or PEFTOK.
Although ill, Quirino ran for re-election in 1953, but he was overwhelmingly defeated by Ramon Magsaysay
.
, Magsaysay was decisively elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino
. He was sworn into office wearing the Barong Tagalog
, a first by a Philippine president.
As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States
and a vocal spokesman against communism
during the Cold War
. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in South East Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific.
During his term, he made Malacañáng Palace
literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public.
One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippines Air Force
(PAF). President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.
On March 16, 1957 Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City
where he spoke at three educational institutions. That same night, at about 1 a.m., he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47
, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing. It was late in the afternoon that day that newspapers reported that the airplane had crashed on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu and that 25 of the 26 passengers and crew aboard were killed. Only newspaperman Néstor Mata
survived. Vice President Carlos P. García
, who was on an official visit to Australia
at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of Magsaysay's term.
An estimated 2 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on March 22, 1957.
on March 17, 1957, and was elected later the same year, in the Election 1957
, to a full term.
During his administration, he acted on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which shortened the lease of the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years.
He was well known when he exercised the Filipino First Policy during his term in office. This policy heavily favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in retail trade which greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. He also made a program focused on thriftiness.
At the end of his second term, he ran for re–election in the Election 1961
in November 1961, but was defeated by Diosdado Macapagal
, who served as Vice-President under him, but belonged to the opposing Liberal Party - in the Philippines the President and the Vice-President are elected separately.
, Macapagal ran against Garcia and defeated the incumbent president by a 55% to 45% margin. Seeking to stimulate economic development
, Macapagal took the advice of supporters and allowed the Philippine peso
to float on the free currency exchange market. His reform efforts were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, and was able to achieve growth and prosperity for the nation.
Among the most significant achievements of Macapagal as president were the abolition of tenancy and accompanying land reform program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. He also changed the date of celebration of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, the latter date having been the day when in 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo
declared independence from Spain
).
Macapagal was defeated for re-election in 1965
by Senate President
Ferdinand Marcos
, a former Liberal Party ally who defected to the Nacionalista party to challenge the incumbent President.
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
from the recognition of independence in 1946 to the end of the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal
Diosdado Macapagal
Diosdado Pangan Macapagal was the ninth President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth Vice President, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, and headed the Constitutional Convention of 1970...
, which covered much of the Third Republic of the Philippines which ended in 1972.
American recognition of independence (1946)
On July 4, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the Republic of the Philippines signed a Treaty of General Relations between the two governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.Filipino historians point out that independence in 1946 came with numerous strings attached. The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, independence was qualified by legislation passed by the U.S. Congress to ensure that the Philippines would remain an economic ward of the U.S., for the time being.
For example, the Bell Trade Act
Bell Trade Act
The Bell Trade Act of 1946, also known as the Philippine Trade Act was an act passed by the United States Congress specifying the economic conditions governing the independence of the Philippines from the United States....
prohibited the Philippines from manufacturing or selling any products that might "come into substantial competition" with U.S.-made goods. It further required that the Philippine Constitution be revised to grant U.S. citizens and corporations equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources. In hearings before the Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William L. Clayton
William L. Clayton
William Lockhart "Will" Clayton was an American business leader and government official.-Early life and career:...
described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."
But the Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for independence. The U.S. Congress was threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged on July 2, 1946.
The Philippines celebrates its Independence Day
Independence Day (Philippines)
In the Philippines, Independence Day is an annual national holiday observed on June 12, commemorating the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. It is the National Day of the Philippines....
in recognition of June 12, 1898, when the Philippines declared its independence from Spain, although its independence was not recognized until July 4, 1946, by the United States. From 1946 to 1961, the Philippines observed Independence Day on July 4 each year. In 1962, President Macapagal on 12 May issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, proclaiming Tuesday, June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines. In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.
The Roxas Administration (1946-1948)
When the Congress of the Philippines was convened in 1945, the legislators elected in 1941 chose Manuel RoxasManuel Roxas
Manuel Acuña Roxas was the first president of the independent Third Republic of the Philippines and fifth president overall. He served as president from the granting of independence in 1946 until his abrupt death in 1948...
as Senate President. In the Philippine national elections of 1946
Philippine general election, 1946
The Elections for the members of the Senate held on April 23, 1946 .-Background:Soon after the reconstitution of the Commonwealth Government in 1945 Senators Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino and their allies called for the holding on an early national election to choose the president and vice...
, Roxas ran for president as the nominee of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party
Liberal Party (Philippines)
The Liberal Party of the Philippines is a liberal party in the Philippines, founded by then senators Senate President Manuel Roxas, Senate President Pro-Tempore Elpidio Quirino, and former 9th Senatorial District Senator Jose Avelino, on November 24, 1945 by a breakaway Liberal group from the...
. He had the staunch support of General MacArthur. His opponent was Sergio Osmeña
Sergio Osmeña
Sergio Osmeña y Suico was a Filipino politician who served as the 4th President of the Philippines from 1944 to 1946. He was Vice President under Manuel L. Quezon, and rose to the presidency upon Quezon's death in 1944, being the oldest Philippine president to hold office at age 65...
, who refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew his reputation. In the April 23, 1946 election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature. When the Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, Roxas became the first president of the new republic.
Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restrictions for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owners and investors. His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap
Hukbalahap
The Hukbalahap , was the military arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines , formed in 1942 to fight the Japanese Empire's occupation of the Philippines during World War II. It fought a second war from 1946 to 1954 against the pro-Western leaders of their newly independent country...
(Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant disaffection.
Roxas did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Clark Air Base on April 15, 1948. He was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino
Elpidio Quirino
Elpidio Rivera Quirino was a Filipino politician, and the sixth President of the Philippines.A lawyer by profession, Quirino entered politics when he became a representative of Ilocos Sur from 1919 to 1925. He was then elected as senator from 1925–1931...
.
The Quirino Administration (1948-1953)
Manuel Roxas
Manuel Acuña Roxas was the first president of the independent Third Republic of the Philippines and fifth president overall. He served as president from the granting of independence in 1946 until his abrupt death in 1948...
. The next year, he was elected president on his own right for a four-year term as the candidate of the Liberal Party
Liberal Party (Philippines)
The Liberal Party of the Philippines is a liberal party in the Philippines, founded by then senators Senate President Manuel Roxas, Senate President Pro-Tempore Elpidio Quirino, and former 9th Senatorial District Senator Jose Avelino, on November 24, 1945 by a breakaway Liberal group from the...
, defeating Jose P. Laurel
Jose P. Laurel
José Paciano Laurel y García was the president of the Republic of the Philippines, a Japanese-sponsored administration during World War II, from 1943 to 1945...
of the Nacionalista Party.
Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky
Victoria Quirino Delgado
Victoria Quirino was the eldest daughter of Philippine President Elpidio Quirino. Since her father, the President, was a widower, she fulfilled on the role of First Lady of the Philippines. She is also the youngest first lady of the country at age 16.Following tradition, she also got involved in...
would serve as the official hostess and perform the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady
First Lady of the Philippines
The First Lady/ Gentleman of the Philippines is the unofficial title of the hostess/host of the Malacañang Palace, the nation's residence of its head of state...
.
Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist Hukbalahap movement. Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis Taruc
Luis Taruc
Luis Taruc was a Filipino political figure and communist insurgent. He was the leader of the Hukbalahap rebel group between 1942 and 1954. His involvement with the movement came after his initiation to the problems of agrarian Filipinos when he was a student in the early 1930s...
broke down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government.
His six years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains, and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in the rural areas, remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.
In 1950, the administration of president Quirino was beginning the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
and over 7,450 Filipino soldiers were sent to Korea under
the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea
Philippine Expeditionary Forces To Korea
The Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea was the Philippine contingent of the United Nations forces that fought in the Korean War . The unit arrived in Korea in August 1950. It was composed of 7,500 troops, and was the fourth largest force under the United Nations Command...
or PEFTOK.
Although ill, Quirino ran for re-election in 1953, but he was overwhelmingly defeated by Ramon Magsaysay
Ramon Magsaysay
Ramón del Fierro Magsaysay was the third President of the Republic of the Philippines from December 30, 1953 until his death in a plane crash in 1957. He was elected President under the banner of the Nacionalista Party.-Early life:Ramon F...
.
The Magsaysay Administration (1953-1957)
In the Election of 1953Philippine general election, 1953
Elections for the members of the Senate were held on November 10, 1953 in the Philippines. Incumbent President Elpidio Quirino of the Liberal Party lost his opportunity to get a second full term as President of the Philippines to former Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay of the Nacionalista Party....
, Magsaysay was decisively elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino
Elpidio Quirino
Elpidio Rivera Quirino was a Filipino politician, and the sixth President of the Philippines.A lawyer by profession, Quirino entered politics when he became a representative of Ilocos Sur from 1919 to 1925. He was then elected as senator from 1925–1931...
. He was sworn into office wearing the Barong Tagalog
Barong Tagalog
The barong Tagalog is an embroidered formal garment of the Philippines. It is very lightweight and worn untucked , over an undershirt. In Filipino culture it is a common wedding and formal attire, mostly for men but also for women...
, a first by a Philippine president.
As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and a vocal spokesman against communism
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
during the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February...
also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in South East Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific.
During his term, he made Malacañáng Palace
Malacañang Palace
The Malacañan Palace, commonly known simply as Malacañang, is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the Philippines. Located at 1000 J. P. Laurel Street, San Miguel, Manila, the house was built in 1750 in Spanish Colonial style. It has been the residence of every...
literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public.
One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippines Air Force
Philippine Air Force
The Philippine Air Force is the air force of the Republic of the Philippines, and one of the three main services of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Its official name in Filipino is Hukbong Himpapawid ng Pilipinas....
(PAF). President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.
On March 16, 1957 Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City
Cebu City
The City of Cebu is the capital city of Cebu and is the second largest city in the Philippines, the second most significant metropolitan centre in the Philippines and known as the oldest settlement established by the Spaniards in the country.The city is located on the eastern shore of Cebu and was...
where he spoke at three educational institutions. That same night, at about 1 a.m., he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47
C-47 Skytrain
The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft that was developed from the Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II and remained in front line operations through the 1950s with a few remaining in operation to this day.-Design and...
, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing. It was late in the afternoon that day that newspapers reported that the airplane had crashed on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu and that 25 of the 26 passengers and crew aboard were killed. Only newspaperman Néstor Mata
Néstor Mata
Nestor Mata is a Filipino journalist whose writing career has spanned six decades. He is perhaps best known as the lone survivor of the 1957 plane crash that killed the President of the Philippines Ramon Magsaysay and 24 others.-Biography:...
survived. Vice President Carlos P. García
Carlos P. Garcia
Carlos Polistico García was a Filipino teacher, poet, orator, lawyer, public official, political economist and guerrilla leader...
, who was on an official visit to Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of Magsaysay's term.
An estimated 2 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on March 22, 1957.
The Garcia Administration (1957-1961)
He assumed the presidency after Ramón Magsaysay died in a plane crash1957 Cebu Douglas C-47 crash
The 1957 crash of a Douglas C-47 plane named "Mt. Pinatubo" on the slopes of Mount Manunggal, Cebu, Philippines, killed the 7th President of the Philippines, Ramon Magsaysay, and 24 other passengers. The crash is estimated to have occurred at 1:40:00 AM, March 17, 1957, Philippine Standard Time...
on March 17, 1957, and was elected later the same year, in the Election 1957
Philippine general election, 1957
Senatorial elections were held on November 12, 1957 in the Philippines. The Nacionalista Party, despite losing two seats to the Liberal Party still held the Senate with twenty seats. The Liberals who won were actor Rogelio de la Rosa and former basketball player Ambrosio Padilla.-See...
, to a full term.
During his administration, he acted on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which shortened the lease of the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years.
He was well known when he exercised the Filipino First Policy during his term in office. This policy heavily favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in retail trade which greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. He also made a program focused on thriftiness.
At the end of his second term, he ran for re–election in the Election 1961
Philippine general election, 1961
A senatorial election was held on November 14, 1961 in the Philippines. The two candidates of the Progressive Party, guest candidates of the Liberal Party, topped the election, while the Liberals themselves won four seats cutting the Nacionalista Party's majority to 13 seats in the 24-seat...
in November 1961, but was defeated by Diosdado Macapagal
Diosdado Macapagal
Diosdado Pangan Macapagal was the ninth President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth Vice President, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, and headed the Constitutional Convention of 1970...
, who served as Vice-President under him, but belonged to the opposing Liberal Party - in the Philippines the President and the Vice-President are elected separately.
The Macapagal Administration (1961-1965)
In the 1961 presidential electionPhilippine general election, 1961
A senatorial election was held on November 14, 1961 in the Philippines. The two candidates of the Progressive Party, guest candidates of the Liberal Party, topped the election, while the Liberals themselves won four seats cutting the Nacionalista Party's majority to 13 seats in the 24-seat...
, Macapagal ran against Garcia and defeated the incumbent president by a 55% to 45% margin. Seeking to stimulate economic development
Economic development
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policymakers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area...
, Macapagal took the advice of supporters and allowed the Philippine peso
Philippine peso
The peso is the currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 centavos . Before 1967, the language used on the banknotes and coins was English and so "peso" was the name used...
to float on the free currency exchange market. His reform efforts were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, and was able to achieve growth and prosperity for the nation.
Among the most significant achievements of Macapagal as president were the abolition of tenancy and accompanying land reform program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. He also changed the date of celebration of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, the latter date having been the day when in 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo
Emilio Aguinaldo
Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role during the Philippines' revolution against Spain, and the subsequent Philippine-American War or War of Philippine Independence that resisted American occupation...
declared independence from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
).
Macapagal was defeated for re-election in 1965
Philippine general election, 1965
A senatorial election was held on November 19, 1965 in the Philippines. The Nacionalista Party wrestled back control of the Senate; originally a Liberal, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos defected to the Nacionalistas, became their presidential candidate and won this year's election...
by Senate President
President of the Senate of the Philippines
The President of the Senate of the Philippines, or more popularly known as the Senate President, is the presiding officer and the highest ranking-official of the Senate of the Philippines. He/she is elected by the entire body to be their leader...
Ferdinand Marcos
Ferdinand Marcos
Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr. was a Filipino leader and an authoritarian President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives and a member of the Philippine Senate...
, a former Liberal Party ally who defected to the Nacionalista party to challenge the incumbent President.
External links
- PBS Frontline
- Philippine Independence Day Celebration - NYC
- Mutual Defense Treaty Full text of the Mutual Defense Treaty between the Philippines and United States of America.
- Treaty of General Relations Full text of the Treaty of General Relations between the Philippines and United States of America
- The Timeline of Philippine History: Second Independence