German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II
Encyclopedia
The German occupation of Luxembourg in World War II was the period in the history of Luxembourg
after it was used as a transit territory to attack France by outflanking the Maginot Line
. Plans for the attack had been prepared by 9 October 1939, but execution was postponed several times. On 10 May 1940, the German Wehrmacht
invaded Luxembourg, Belgium
and the Netherlands
.
The outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 put Luxembourg’s government in a delicate situation. On the one hand, the population’s sympathy lay with Britain and France; on the other hand, due to the country's policy since 1867 of strict neutrality
, the government adopted a careful non-belligerent
stance towards its neighbours. As of 1 September, Radio Luxembourg stopped broadcasting. In spring 1940, fortifications were erected along the borders with Germany and France. The so-called Schusterline, named after its constructor, consisted of massive concrete road blocks
with steel doors. The official aim of these road blocks was to slow down the progress of any invading army and give time for the guarantors of Luxembourg's neutrality to take counteractions against the invaders. However, compared to the massive power of the German forces, it only had symbolic character and helped to calm down the population. Except for its small Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps, Luxembourg did not possess an army, due to treaty restrictions.
After several false alarms in the spring of 1940, the certainty of a military conflict between Germany and France grew. Germany stopped the export of coke
for the Luxembourgish steel industry.
and Mosel. In the meantime, German special forces
dressed as civilians and supported by Germans living in Luxembourg - the so-called Stoßtrupp Lützelburg - tried to sabotage radio broadcasting and the barricades along the German-Luxembourgish border but their attempt failed. The Royal Family was evacuated from their residence in Colmar-Berg
to the Grand Ducal palace
in Luxembourg City.
The German invasion, made up of the 1st, 2nd, and 10th Panzer Divisions began at 04:35. They did not encounter any significant resistance save for some bridges destroyed and some land mines, since the majority of the Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps stayed in their barracks. Luxembourgish police resisted the German troops, however, to little avail; the capital city was occupied before noon. Total Luxembourgish casualties amounted to 75 police and soldiers captured, six police wounded, and one soldier wounded. At 08:00, elements of the French 3rd Light Cavalry Division (3 DLC) of General Petiet, supported by the 1st Spahi Brigade of Colonel Jouffault and the 2nd company of the 5th Armoured Battalion (5 BCC), crossed the southern border to conduct a probe of German forces; these units later retreated behind the Maginot Line
. On the evening of 10 May 1940, most of the nation, with the exception of the south, was occupied by German forces. More than 90,000 civilians evacuated from the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette
as a consequence of the advance. 47,000 fled to France, 45,000 fled into the central and northern part of Luxembourg.
Grand Duchess Charlotte
and the government of Premier Pierre Dupong fled to France, Portugal and the United Kingdom, before finally settling in Canada for the duration of the war. Charlotte, exiled in London
, became an important symbol of national unity. The only official representative left behind was Albert Wehrer, head of a governmental commission, as well as the 41 deputies.
At first, the people thought that they could accommodate themselves with the occupying regime without further harm, just as they had done in the World War I
. However, it was soon made clear by the authorities that their fate would be very different this time. The Nazis considered the Luxembourgish people as just another Germanic ethnic group and the Grand Duchy a German territory.
On 17 May 1940, the Volksdeutsche Bewegung
was founded in Luxembourg City under the leadership of Damian Kratzenberg
. Its main goal was to push the population towards a German-friendly position by means of propaganda and thus to lead Luxembourg Heim ins Reich
. After a short period under military administration between 1 May and 2 August, Luxembourg was included into the CdZ-Gebiet Luxemburg on 29 July under the guidance of Gustav Simon
. Simon was the civil administrator of the Gaue Trier-Koblenz (later Moselland) and led a propaganda and later terror campaign, known as Heim ins Reich
, to convince the population that they were ethnic Germans and a natural part of the Third Reich. As Gauleiter
, he was responsible to Adolf Hitler
only. His two goals were very clear:
His very first series of decrees made this policy very clear:
A massive propaganda campaign was launched to influence the population, while not only dissidents and critics but also teachers, officials and leading business figures were threatened with losing their jobs unless they joined Nazi organisations, which led to much increased recruitment from all professions. A central database documented the personal opinion regarding the Nazi regime of almost every citizen. People who were openly opposed to the regime lost their jobs or were deported mainly to eastern Germany and in the worst case sent to the death camps where many of them died.
, life became unbearable for the Jewish population. Their shops, possessions and money were confiscated and all Jewish employees were fired. They were not allowed inside public buildings or to keep pets. Between August 1940 and October 1941, 619 Jews left the country on the orders of the authorities. The Gestapo
accompanied them to France and Spain but, since they were rejected there, they went on an endless odyssey.
On 23 August 1941, a curfew
was introduced for the Jewish population and they were degraded to second class citizens. The synagogues in Luxembourg City and Esch-sur-Alzette
were destroyed; the ones in Ettelbruck
and Mondorf-les-Bains
were devastated. The Nazis concentrated the remaining Jews in the old monastery of Fünfbrunnen. On 16 October 1941, their transportation began to the Ghetto of Litzmannstadt and after April 1942 to the death camps of Hinzert/Hunsrück
, Belsen
, Sobibor
, Majdanek
and Theresienstadt. With the last transport in June 1942, 11 people were sent directly to Auschwitz. Two of them survived.
One prominent Jewish survivor was Alfred Oppenheimer, a member of the Consistoire (similar to the Jewish Councils
of occupied eastern Europe). Together with his family, he was deported to concentration camp, where his wife was killed and then to Auschwitz where his son Rene was gassed. Alfred Oppenheimer survived the death camp and was one of the witnesses at the trial of Adolf Eichmann
. He returned to live in Luxembourg until his death aged over 90, and was known for his involvement in public education about the Nazi regime and the Holocaust
. The Prix René Oppenheimer was created in memory of his son.
On 17 June 1943, Gustav Simon announced Luxembourg to be free of Jews
. From the 683 deported, only 43 survived.
and "Judeo-Bolshevism", hoping that Prussia
n generals of the Wehrmacht
would defeat Joseph Stalin
and the Red Army, while at the same time hiding Jews and anti-Nazi clergy mixed together in their farms. The Luxembourg Resistance was joined by the Communist Party of Luxembourg
after June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa
).
The different groups were:
The different groups merged in March 1944 into the Union. The actions against the Nazi regime were largely limited to psychological warfare and armed actions were less common. Many young men joined the armed resistance in France and Belgium. The main accomplishment of the Luxembourgish resistance, which should not be underestimated, was the moral support for the population through the distribution of flyers, graffiti, and by hiding youths who refused to serve in the German Wehrmacht.
Several well-known Catholic and Communist households, and many parishes and priories, also kept a number of Jewish Luxembourgish civilians and foreign Jews hidden and safe.
The Luxembourgian general strike of 1942 was a pacific resistance movement organised within a short time period to protest against a directive that incorporated the Luxembourg youth into the Wehrmacht. A national general strike, originating mainly in Wiltz, paralysed the country and prompted the occupying German authorities to respond violently by sentencing 21 strikers to death.
with the Nazi occupation is an aspect less often talked about in Luxembourg. These collaborators were mainly found within the Volksdeutschen Bewegung
, an organisation which supported the Nazi regime and participated in the dismantlement of the Luxembourgish state. The most loyal members were joined by individuals who gave way to either pressure or opportunism. Some historians estimate that the size of the collaboration was approximately similar to that of the resistance. About 2,000 collaborators were found guilty of treason after the end of the war, including nine individuals who were executed. Others remained incarcerated until the 1950s, when most were amnestied.
Luxembourg was liberated by Allied forces in September 1944. They entered the capital city on 10 September 1944. The Germans retreated without fighting. One month before the start of the Battle of the Bulge
, 250 soldiers of the Waffen-SS
had unsuccessfully tried to recapture the town of Vianden from the Luxembourgish Resistance during the Battle of Vianden
. During the Battle of the Bulge
, the northern part of the country was hit by artillery from a special unit that the Germans designed to send shells up to 40 km (24.9 mi) away (see V3), but the Germans did not take the city.
, beginning in late 1945. Luxembourgish forces functioned under overall French command within the zone and were responsible for the areas of Bitburg
/Eifel
and parts of Saarburg
. They were withdrawn from Saarburg in 1948, and from Bitburg/Eifel in July 1955.
History of Luxembourg
The history of Luxembourg is inherently entwined with the histories of surrounding countries, peoples, and ruling dynasties. Over time, the territory of Luxembourg has been eroded, whilst its ownership has changed repeatedly, and its political independence has grown gradually.'Although recorded...
after it was used as a transit territory to attack France by outflanking the Maginot Line
Maginot Line
The Maginot Line , named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, was a line of concrete fortifications, tank obstacles, artillery casemates, machine gun posts, and other defences, which France constructed along its borders with Germany and Italy, in light of its experience in World War I,...
. Plans for the attack had been prepared by 9 October 1939, but execution was postponed several times. On 10 May 1940, the German Wehrmacht
Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht – from , to defend and , the might/power) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe .-Origin and use of the term:...
invaded Luxembourg, Belgium
Battle of Belgium
The Battle of Belgium or Belgian Campaign formed part of the greater Battle of France, an offensive campaign by Germany during the Second World War...
and the Netherlands
Battle of the Netherlands
The Battle of the Netherlands was part of Case Yellow , the German invasion of the Low Countries and France during World War II. The battle lasted from 10 May 1940 until 14 May 1940 when the main Dutch forces surrendered...
.
Eve of the invasion
Treaty of London, 1867
The Treaty of London , often called the Second Treaty of London after the 1839 Treaty, was an international treaty signed on 11 May 1867. Agreed in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War and the Luxembourg Crisis, it had wide-reaching consequences for Luxembourg and for relations between...
, the government adopted a careful non-belligerent
Non-belligerent
A non-belligerent is a person, a state, or other organization that does not fight in a given conflict. The term is often used to describe a country that does not take part militarily in a war...
stance towards its neighbours. As of 1 September, Radio Luxembourg stopped broadcasting. In spring 1940, fortifications were erected along the borders with Germany and France. The so-called Schusterline, named after its constructor, consisted of massive concrete road blocks
Roadblock
A roadblock is a temporary installation set up to control or block traffic along a road. The reasons for one could be:*Roadworks*Temporary road closure during special events*Police chase*Robbery*Sobriety checkpoint...
with steel doors. The official aim of these road blocks was to slow down the progress of any invading army and give time for the guarantors of Luxembourg's neutrality to take counteractions against the invaders. However, compared to the massive power of the German forces, it only had symbolic character and helped to calm down the population. Except for its small Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps, Luxembourg did not possess an army, due to treaty restrictions.
After several false alarms in the spring of 1940, the certainty of a military conflict between Germany and France grew. Germany stopped the export of coke
Coke (fuel)
Coke is the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. Cokes from coal are grey, hard, and porous. While coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made.- History :...
for the Luxembourgish steel industry.
Invasion
The steel doors of the Schusterline were ordered closed on 10 May 1940 at 03:15, following movements of German troops on the east side of the border rivers Our, SauerSauer
The Sauer or Sûre is a river in Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. A left tributary of the river Moselle, its total length is 173 km....
and Mosel. In the meantime, German special forces
Brandenburgers
The Brandenburgers were members of the Brandenburg German Special Forces unit during World War II.Units of Brandenburgers operated in almost all fronts - the invasion of Poland, Denmark and Norway, in the Battle of France, in Operation Barbarossa, in Finland, Greece and the invasion of Crete,...
dressed as civilians and supported by Germans living in Luxembourg - the so-called Stoßtrupp Lützelburg - tried to sabotage radio broadcasting and the barricades along the German-Luxembourgish border but their attempt failed. The Royal Family was evacuated from their residence in Colmar-Berg
Colmar-Berg
Colmar-Berg is a commune and town in central Luxembourg, in the canton of Mersch. It is situated at the confluence of the rivers Attert and Alzette....
to the Grand Ducal palace
Grand Ducal Palace, Luxembourg
The Grand Ducal Palace is a palace in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is the official residence of the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and where he performs most of his duties as head of state of the Grand Duchy.-History:...
in Luxembourg City.
The German invasion, made up of the 1st, 2nd, and 10th Panzer Divisions began at 04:35. They did not encounter any significant resistance save for some bridges destroyed and some land mines, since the majority of the Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps stayed in their barracks. Luxembourgish police resisted the German troops, however, to little avail; the capital city was occupied before noon. Total Luxembourgish casualties amounted to 75 police and soldiers captured, six police wounded, and one soldier wounded. At 08:00, elements of the French 3rd Light Cavalry Division (3 DLC) of General Petiet, supported by the 1st Spahi Brigade of Colonel Jouffault and the 2nd company of the 5th Armoured Battalion (5 BCC), crossed the southern border to conduct a probe of German forces; these units later retreated behind the Maginot Line
Maginot Line
The Maginot Line , named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, was a line of concrete fortifications, tank obstacles, artillery casemates, machine gun posts, and other defences, which France constructed along its borders with Germany and Italy, in light of its experience in World War I,...
. On the evening of 10 May 1940, most of the nation, with the exception of the south, was occupied by German forces. More than 90,000 civilians evacuated from the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette
Esch-sur-Alzette (canton)
Esch-sur-Alzette is a canton in the south-west of Luxembourg, in Luxembourg District. The capital is Esch-sur-Alzette.The canton consists of the following 14 communes:*Bettembourg*Differdange*Dudelange*Esch-sur-Alzette*Frisange*Kayl*Leudelange...
as a consequence of the advance. 47,000 fled to France, 45,000 fled into the central and northern part of Luxembourg.
Grand Duchess Charlotte
Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg
Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg was the reigning Grand Duchess of Luxembourg from 1919 to 1964.-Early life and life as Grand Duchess:...
and the government of Premier Pierre Dupong fled to France, Portugal and the United Kingdom, before finally settling in Canada for the duration of the war. Charlotte, exiled in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
, became an important symbol of national unity. The only official representative left behind was Albert Wehrer, head of a governmental commission, as well as the 41 deputies.
The Nazi regime in Luxembourg
German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I
The German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I was the first of two military occupations of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg by Germany in the twentieth century. From August 1914 until the end of World War I in November 1918, Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire...
. However, it was soon made clear by the authorities that their fate would be very different this time. The Nazis considered the Luxembourgish people as just another Germanic ethnic group and the Grand Duchy a German territory.
On 17 May 1940, the Volksdeutsche Bewegung
Volksdeutsche Bewegung
Volksdeutsche Bewegung was a Nazi movement in Luxembourg that flourished under German occupation during the Second World War....
was founded in Luxembourg City under the leadership of Damian Kratzenberg
Damian Kratzenberg
Damian Kratzenberg was a highschool teacher who became head of the Volksdeutsche Bewegung , a pro-Nazi political group, in Luxembourg during World War II...
. Its main goal was to push the population towards a German-friendly position by means of propaganda and thus to lead Luxembourg Heim ins Reich
Heim ins Reich
The Heim ins Reich initiative was a policy pursued by Adolf Hitler starting in 1938 and was one of the factors leading to World War II. The initiative attempted to convince people of German descent living outside of the German Reich that they should strive to bring these regions "home" into a...
. After a short period under military administration between 1 May and 2 August, Luxembourg was included into the CdZ-Gebiet Luxemburg on 29 July under the guidance of Gustav Simon
Gustav Simon
Gustav Simon was, as the Nazi Gauleiter in the Moselland Gau from 1940 until 1944, the Chief of the Civil Administration in Luxembourg, which was occupied at that time by Nazi Germany....
. Simon was the civil administrator of the Gaue Trier-Koblenz (later Moselland) and led a propaganda and later terror campaign, known as Heim ins Reich
Heim ins Reich
The Heim ins Reich initiative was a policy pursued by Adolf Hitler starting in 1938 and was one of the factors leading to World War II. The initiative attempted to convince people of German descent living outside of the German Reich that they should strive to bring these regions "home" into a...
, to convince the population that they were ethnic Germans and a natural part of the Third Reich. As Gauleiter
Gauleiter
A Gauleiter was the party leader of a regional branch of the NSDAP or the head of a Gau or of a Reichsgau.-Creation and Early Usage:...
, he was responsible to Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
only. His two goals were very clear:
- The GermanisationGermanisationGermanisation is both the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or assimilation, and the adaptation of a foreign word to the German language in linguistics, much like the Romanisation of many languages which do not use the Latin alphabet...
of Luxembourg, i.e., the extinction of everything that was not of German source, like French names and words of French origin or a French way of life, i.e., wearing a beretBeretA beret is a soft, round, flat-crowned hat, designated a "cap", usually of woven, hand-knitted wool, crocheted cotton, or wool felt, or acrylic fiber....
(a traditional cap from the Northern Basque CountryNorthern Basque CountryThe French Basque Country or Northern Basque Country situated within the western part of the French department of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques constitutes the north-eastern part of the Basque Country....
). - The destruction and dismemberment of the Luxembourgish state.
His very first series of decrees made this policy very clear:
- 6 August 1940. The usage of the French language was banned. The ban included names of streets and towns, even expressions of courtesy such as 'Bonjour', 'Merci', 'Monsieur', 'Madame', etc. were banned. French names were translated into their German counterpart or simply replaced by something sounding more Germanic. Henri became Heinrich, Dupont became Brückner.
- Autumn 1940. The political parties and independent labour unions, the Parliament and the Conseil d'EtatCouncil of State of LuxembourgThe Council of State is an institution in Luxembourg that advises the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies. Until 1 January 1997, it was also the country's supreme administrative court, but this function was ceded to the newly created Administrative Tribunal and Administrative Court.The...
were dissolved. All civil society organisations and the press were subjected to Nazi control. - Till end 1940. The German jurisdiction was introduced including the SondergerichteSondergerichteA Sondergericht was a Nazi "special court." After taking power in 1933, the Nazis quickly moved to remove internal opposition to the Nazi regime in Germany. The legal system became one of many tools for this aim and the Nazis gradually supplanted the normal justice system with political courts...
and the Nuremberg LawsNuremberg LawsThe Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany introduced at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. After the takeover of power in 1933 by Hitler, Nazism became an official ideology incorporating scientific racism and antisemitism...
. - From 1941 many Luxembourgish youth were ordered to participate in the ReichsarbeitsdienstReichsarbeitsdienstThe Reichsarbeitsdienst was an institution established by Nazi Germany as an agency to reduce unemployment, similar to the relief programs in other countries. During the Second World War it was an auxiliary formation which provided support for the Wehrmacht.The RAD was formed during July 1934 as...
.
A massive propaganda campaign was launched to influence the population, while not only dissidents and critics but also teachers, officials and leading business figures were threatened with losing their jobs unless they joined Nazi organisations, which led to much increased recruitment from all professions. A central database documented the personal opinion regarding the Nazi regime of almost every citizen. People who were openly opposed to the regime lost their jobs or were deported mainly to eastern Germany and in the worst case sent to the death camps where many of them died.
The fate of Luxembourg's Jews
Before the invasion, 3,800 Jews lived in Luxembourg, many of them refugees from Germany. On 10 May 1940, 1,800 of them still remained. After Simon introduced the Nuremberg LawsNuremberg Laws
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany introduced at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. After the takeover of power in 1933 by Hitler, Nazism became an official ideology incorporating scientific racism and antisemitism...
, life became unbearable for the Jewish population. Their shops, possessions and money were confiscated and all Jewish employees were fired. They were not allowed inside public buildings or to keep pets. Between August 1940 and October 1941, 619 Jews left the country on the orders of the authorities. The Gestapo
Gestapo
The Gestapo was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police...
accompanied them to France and Spain but, since they were rejected there, they went on an endless odyssey.
On 23 August 1941, a curfew
Curfew
A curfew is an order specifying a time after which certain regulations apply. Examples:# An order by a government for certain persons to return home daily before a certain time...
was introduced for the Jewish population and they were degraded to second class citizens. The synagogues in Luxembourg City and Esch-sur-Alzette
Esch-sur-Alzette
Esch-sur-Alzette is a commune with city status, in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second city, and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 29,853 people...
were destroyed; the ones in Ettelbruck
Ettelbruck
Ettelbruck is a commune with city status in central Luxembourg, with a population of approximately 7,500. As of 2005, the town of Ettelbruck itself, which lies in the east of the commune, has a population of 6,191. The town of Warken and Grentzingen are also within the commune...
and Mondorf-les-Bains
Mondorf-les-Bains
Mondorf-les-Bains is a commune and town in south-eastern Luxembourg. It is part of the canton of Remich, which is part of the district of Grevenmacher. Mondorf-les-Bains is a spa town , and has the only casino in Luxembourg....
were devastated. The Nazis concentrated the remaining Jews in the old monastery of Fünfbrunnen. On 16 October 1941, their transportation began to the Ghetto of Litzmannstadt and after April 1942 to the death camps of Hinzert/Hunsrück
Hinzert concentration camp
Hinzert was a Nazi concentration camp located in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, 30 km from the Luxembourg border....
, Belsen
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp
Bergen-Belsen was a Nazi concentration camp in Lower Saxony in northwestern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle...
, Sobibor
Sobibór extermination camp
Sobibor was a Nazi German extermination camp located on the outskirts of the town of Sobibór, Lublin Voivodeship of occupied Poland as part of Operation Reinhard; the official German name was SS-Sonderkommando Sobibor...
, Majdanek
Majdanek
Majdanek was a German Nazi concentration camp on the outskirts of Lublin, Poland, established during the German Nazi occupation of Poland. The camp operated from October 1, 1941 until July 22, 1944, when it was captured nearly intact by the advancing Soviet Red Army...
and Theresienstadt. With the last transport in June 1942, 11 people were sent directly to Auschwitz. Two of them survived.
One prominent Jewish survivor was Alfred Oppenheimer, a member of the Consistoire (similar to the Jewish Councils
Judenrat
Judenräte were administrative bodies during the Second World War that the Germans required Jews to form in the German occupied territory of Poland, and later in the occupied territories of the Soviet Union It is the overall term for the enforcement bodies established by the Nazi occupiers to...
of occupied eastern Europe). Together with his family, he was deported to concentration camp, where his wife was killed and then to Auschwitz where his son Rene was gassed. Alfred Oppenheimer survived the death camp and was one of the witnesses at the trial of Adolf Eichmann
Adolf Eichmann
Adolf Otto Eichmann was a German Nazi and SS-Obersturmbannführer and one of the major organizers of the Holocaust...
. He returned to live in Luxembourg until his death aged over 90, and was known for his involvement in public education about the Nazi regime and the Holocaust
The Holocaust
The Holocaust , also known as the Shoah , was the genocide of approximately six million European Jews and millions of others during World War II, a programme of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi...
. The Prix René Oppenheimer was created in memory of his son.
On 17 June 1943, Gustav Simon announced Luxembourg to be free of Jews
Judenfrei
Judenfrei was a Nazi term to designate an area free of Jewish presence during The Holocaust.While Judenfrei referred merely to "freeing" an area of all of its Jewish citizens, the term Judenrein was also used...
. From the 683 deported, only 43 survived.
The population’s reaction
The general public were slow to react at first, still feeling shock from the invasion of 1914–1918. Furthermore the royal family and the government had silently fled into exile. In general the different reactions of the population can be grouped in the following categories:The Resistance
The Luxembourgish resistance was carried out by only a small fraction of the population. Its formation was spontaneous and slow at first. The first groups were formed in autumn 1940–1941. In the beginning they worked without coordination and from different motivations, for instance Liberals opposed to the anti-Jewish policies and in favour of democracy as well as conservative Roman Catholics with sometimes more or less anti-Jewish tendencies. Some of the latter category also were at the same time opposed to the Soviet UnionSoviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and "Judeo-Bolshevism", hoping that Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n generals of the Wehrmacht
Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht – from , to defend and , the might/power) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe .-Origin and use of the term:...
would defeat Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
and the Red Army, while at the same time hiding Jews and anti-Nazi clergy mixed together in their farms. The Luxembourg Resistance was joined by the Communist Party of Luxembourg
Communist Party of Luxembourg
The Communist Party of Luxembourg , abbreviated to KPL or PCL, is a communist political party in Luxembourg.Ali Ruckert is the current chairman of the party.- History :...
after June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a front., the largest invasion in the history of warfare...
).
The different groups were:
- L.P.L., Lëtzebuerger Patriote LigaLuxembourgian Patriot LeagueThe Luxembourgian Patriot League , was a Luxembourgian Resistance movement during World War II. It was founded in September 1940 in Echternach and Clervaux by Raymond Petit.- Literature :...
, (Eng: Luxembourgian Patriot League), founded 1940 - LFB, Lëtzeburger Freihétsbewegong, (Eng: Luxembourgish Freedom Movement), founded 1940
- LFK, Lëtzeburger Freihétskämpfer, (Eng: Luxembourgish Freedom Fighters), founded January 1941
- L.V.L., Lëtzeburger Volleks Legio'n, (Eng: Luxembourgish Peoples Legion), founded June 1941
- L.R.L., Lëtzeburger Ro'de Lé'wLuxembourgish Red LionLuxembourgish Red Lion Lëtzeburger Ro'de Lé'w was one of the most famous Luxembourgish Resistance groups during World War II. It was founded in October 1941 in Hautcharage and was active during World War II especially in the South, West and centre of the country. In March 1944, the L.R.L...
, (Eng: Luxembourgish Red Lion), founded October 1941 - PI-Men, Patriotes Indépendants, (Eng: Independent Patriots), founded 1941
- LFB, Lëtzeburger Freihétsbond, (Eng: Luxembourgish Freedom Alliance)
- Alweraje, 1941.
The different groups merged in March 1944 into the Union. The actions against the Nazi regime were largely limited to psychological warfare and armed actions were less common. Many young men joined the armed resistance in France and Belgium. The main accomplishment of the Luxembourgish resistance, which should not be underestimated, was the moral support for the population through the distribution of flyers, graffiti, and by hiding youths who refused to serve in the German Wehrmacht.
Several well-known Catholic and Communist households, and many parishes and priories, also kept a number of Jewish Luxembourgish civilians and foreign Jews hidden and safe.
The Luxembourgian general strike of 1942 was a pacific resistance movement organised within a short time period to protest against a directive that incorporated the Luxembourg youth into the Wehrmacht. A national general strike, originating mainly in Wiltz, paralysed the country and prompted the occupying German authorities to respond violently by sentencing 21 strikers to death.
Collaboration
CollaborationCollaborationism
Collaborationism is cooperation with enemy forces against one's country. Legally, it may be considered as a form of treason. Collaborationism may be associated with criminal deeds in the service of the occupying power, which may include complicity with the occupying power in murder, persecutions,...
with the Nazi occupation is an aspect less often talked about in Luxembourg. These collaborators were mainly found within the Volksdeutschen Bewegung
Volksdeutsche Bewegung
Volksdeutsche Bewegung was a Nazi movement in Luxembourg that flourished under German occupation during the Second World War....
, an organisation which supported the Nazi regime and participated in the dismantlement of the Luxembourgish state. The most loyal members were joined by individuals who gave way to either pressure or opportunism. Some historians estimate that the size of the collaboration was approximately similar to that of the resistance. About 2,000 collaborators were found guilty of treason after the end of the war, including nine individuals who were executed. Others remained incarcerated until the 1950s, when most were amnestied.
The majority of the population
The majority of the population kept their heads low to avoid any conflict with the authorities; however, they did not hide their resentments completely. This attitude became obvious through subtle but effective actions:- During the impressive parade of the German police force on 6 August 1940 in Luxembourg-City, some spectators wore a pin bearing the Luxembourgish coat of armsCoat of arms of LuxembourgThe coat of arms of Luxembourg has its origins in the Middle Ages, and was derived from that of the Duchy of Limburg, in modern day Belgium and the Netherlands...
. This pin originated from the 100th anniversary celebrations of the independence of the country in 1939. Consequently those who had worn the pin were severely beaten by the authorities. - On 21 October 1940, the national monument “Gëlle Fra“Gëlle FraThe Monument of Remembrance , usually known by the nickname of the Gëlle Fra , is a war memorial in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg...
, a memorial for voluntary Luxembourgish soldiers who had fought in World War I with the French, was demolished. Hundreds of people protested and were brutally dispersed by the GestapoGestapoThe Gestapo was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police...
. 13 people were arrested. - 10 October 1941: Expecting their propaganda campaign to be successful, the occupation authorities organised a census, which included seemingly innocuous questions about nationality, mother tongue and ethnicity. Resistance organisations were quick to recognise this as a thinly disguised attempt to incorporate Luxembourg into the Reich and mounted a massive underground awareness-raising campaign (‘’Dräimol Lëtzebuergesch, eng: Three times Luxembourgish’’), turning the census into a referendumReferendumA referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
. The result was that 97% declared their Luxembourgish identity, often writing Mir wëlle bleiwen wat mir sin (We wish to remain what we are) on the census forms. When the regime became aware of the fiasco, the census was immediately stopped. For the suppressed population, this was an enormous moral victory. - 30 August 1942, the ReichsarbeitsdienstReichsarbeitsdienstThe Reichsarbeitsdienst was an institution established by Nazi Germany as an agency to reduce unemployment, similar to the relief programs in other countries. During the Second World War it was an auxiliary formation which provided support for the Wehrmacht.The RAD was formed during July 1934 as...
and military draft for the men born between 1920 and 1927 was introduced. The drafting into the Wehrmacht provoked a general strike against the occupying authorities, which started in WiltzWiltzWiltz is a commune with city status in north-western Luxembourg, capital of the canton Wiltz. Wiltz is situated on the banks of the river Wiltz. It was also a battleground in the Battle of the Bulge, near the end of World War II...
on 31 August 1942 and soon spread out over the rest of the country. The action was violently suppressed – 21 strikers were executed and hundreds more deported to concentration camps. The peaceful uprising of this small nation against a powerful oppressor became largely known abroad. - About 40% of the men drafted for service refused to serve in the German Wehrmacht and went into hiding, half of them inside the country's borders. Those who escaped to Britain joined the Allied Forces and took part in the Battle of NormandyOperation OverlordOperation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings...
as part of the 1st Belgian Brigade1st Belgian Infantry BrigadeThe Belgian 1st Infantry Brigade, also known as the "Brigade Piron", after its commander, Jean-Baptiste Piron, was a Belgian and Luxembourger army unit which fought in World War II...
also known as the Brigade Piron. - Some Luxembourgish refused to give the Nazi salute, i.e. rising one's arm while shouting "Heil Hitler". Instead, they said "Drei Liter" ("Three liters", understood as "three liters of beer") as fast as possible and with a strong Luxembourgish accent, which fooled any German who could hear it.
The Terror Regime
Faced with opposition from the general public the regime felt compelled to take brutal measures against any form of resistance. After the general strike of 1942, Gustav Simon proclaimed a state of emergency and introduced the German Standgerichte. Thousands were arrested and tortured. Hundreds died in the concentration camps. Whole families were deported to eastern Germany and replaced by German families, mainly from South-Tyrol and Eastern Europe. The headquarters of the Gestapo, the Villa Pauly, became the symbol of this terror.The Liberation
Battle of the Bulge
The Battle of the Bulge was a major German offensive , launched toward the end of World War II through the densely forested Ardennes mountain region of Wallonia in Belgium, hence its French name , and France and...
, 250 soldiers of the Waffen-SS
Waffen-SS
The Waffen-SS was a multi-ethnic and multi-national military force of the Third Reich. It constituted the armed wing of the Schutzstaffel or SS, an organ of the Nazi Party. The Waffen-SS saw action throughout World War II and grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions, and served alongside...
had unsuccessfully tried to recapture the town of Vianden from the Luxembourgish Resistance during the Battle of Vianden
Battle of Vianden
The Battle of Vianden took place November 19, 1944 in the small town of Vianden in northern Luxembourg, and was one of the most important battles of the Luxembourgish resistance against Nazi Germany during World War II...
. During the Battle of the Bulge
Battle of the Bulge
The Battle of the Bulge was a major German offensive , launched toward the end of World War II through the densely forested Ardennes mountain region of Wallonia in Belgium, hence its French name , and France and...
, the northern part of the country was hit by artillery from a special unit that the Germans designed to send shells up to 40 km (24.9 mi) away (see V3), but the Germans did not take the city.
Luxembourg's participation in the occupation of Germany 1945–1955
Following the war, Luxembourgish troops took part in the occupation of Germany, contributing troops that were part of the force in the occupation zone controlled by the FrenchAllied Occupation Zones in Germany
The Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative purposes during 1945–49. In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe, US forces had pushed beyond the previously agreed boundaries for the...
, beginning in late 1945. Luxembourgish forces functioned under overall French command within the zone and were responsible for the areas of Bitburg
Bitburg
Bitburg It is situated approx. 25 km north-west of Trier, and 50 km north-east of Luxembourg . One American airbase, Spangdahlem Air Base, is located nearby.-History:...
/Eifel
Eifel
The Eifel is a low mountain range in western Germany and eastern Belgium. It occupies parts of southwestern North Rhine-Westphalia, northwestern Rhineland-Palatinate and the south of the German-speaking Community of Belgium....
and parts of Saarburg
Saarburg
Saarburg is a city of the Trier-Saarburg district in the Rhineland-Palatinate state of Germany, on the banks of the Saar River in the hilly country a few kilometers upstream from the Saar's junction with the Moselle....
. They were withdrawn from Saarburg in 1948, and from Bitburg/Eifel in July 1955.
Casualties and damage
In total, 5,703 citizens died during World War II. This corresponds to 1.8% of a pre-war population of roughly 309,000.See also
- German occupation of Luxembourg in World War IGerman occupation of Luxembourg in World War IThe German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I was the first of two military occupations of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg by Germany in the twentieth century. From August 1914 until the end of World War I in November 1918, Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire...
- National Museum of Military History (Luxembourg)National Museum of Military History (Luxembourg)The National Museum of Military History , abbreviated to NMMH, is a national museum in Diekirch, in north-eastern Luxembourg, that includes amongst its exhibits military vehicles and weaponry, a photographic archive, and lifesize dioramas displaying military servicemen and actions...
- Luxembourgian general strike of 1942
- Battle of BelgiumBattle of BelgiumThe Battle of Belgium or Belgian Campaign formed part of the greater Battle of France, an offensive campaign by Germany during the Second World War...
- Battle of the NetherlandsBattle of the NetherlandsThe Battle of the Netherlands was part of Case Yellow , the German invasion of the Low Countries and France during World War II. The battle lasted from 10 May 1940 until 14 May 1940 when the main Dutch forces surrendered...