George F. Bond
Encyclopedia
Capt. George Foote Bond USN (ret.)
(November 14, 1915 – January 3, 1983) was an American
physician
who was known as a leader in the field of undersea
and hyperbaric medicine and the "Father of Saturation Diving
".
to Robert and Louise Foot Bond. Bond received a Bachelor
and Master of Arts
from the University of Florida
in 1939. He then attended medical school at McGill University
where he completed his medical training in surgery
in 1945. Bond performed his internship at the Memorial Hospital in Charlotte, North Carolina
. In 1946, Bond established a rural medicine practice in Bat Cave, North Carolina
. Seeing a need in the community, Bond established the Valley Clinic and Hospital in 1948. Bond was recognized by the community as "Doctor of the Year" in 1953. The people of the area showed their affection towards Bond when he appeared on the national television show This Is Your Life
on June 22, 1955.
Medical Officer and served as Squadron Medical Officer from 1954 to 1958. Later that year, Bond transferred to the Naval Medical Research Laboratory
in Groton, Connecticut
where he served as the Officer-in-Charge until 1964. It was during this time that Bond conducted his earliest experiments into saturation diving
techniques.
proposed the idea of exposing humans to increased ambient pressures long enough for the blood and tissues to become saturated
with inert gases in 1942. In 1957, Bond began the Genesis project proving that humans could in fact withstand prolonged exposure to different breathing gases and increased environmental pressures. Once saturation is achieved, the amount of time needed for decompression depends on the depth and gases breathed. This was the beginning of saturation diving
and the US Navy's Man-in-the-Sea Program.
Genesis was conducted in phases. In 1957 and 1958, the first two phases (A and B) involved exposing animals to saturation in various breathing gases. The experiments are summarized in the table below:
Once the animal work was completed, Bond proposed offering "the opportunity for development of ecological systems which would permit man, as a free agent, to live and work to depths at 600 feet, and for periods in excess of 30 days." This proposal was rejected but in 1962, interest in helium-oxygen
atmospheres for manned space flights made Phase C possible.
Fred Korth
was the Secretary of the Navy
in 1962 and authorized Phase C involving saturation of three subjects at one atmosphere (surface) in a 21.6% oxygen, 4% nitrogen, and 74.4% helium environment for six days. The divers for this trial were Lieutenants John C. Bull, Jr., Albert P. Fisher, Jr., and Chief Quartermaster Robert A. Barth. Physiologically, the subjects showed no changes though difficulty controlling their body temperature as well as changes in their speech from the helium were noted.
Phase D experiments were conducted at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
in 1963. The subjects for these trials were Robert A. Barth, Sanders W. Manning, and Raymond R. Lavois. The subjects performed the world's first saturation dive at a depth of 100 feet of seawater (fsw) in a 7% oxygen, 7% nitrogen, and 86% helium environment for 6 days. Light exercise and underwater swimming was performed periodically in the "wet pot" (a water-filled hyperbaric chamber). Again the difficulty controlling their body temperature was a concern and the helium speech became worse at the greater environmental pressure.
Bond returned the team to the Naval Medical Research Laboratory for the Phase E trials in 1963. The divers were John C. Bull, Jr., Robert A. Barth, and Sanders W. Manning. They were saturated for 12 days at 198 fsw breathing 3.9% oxygen, 6.5% nitrogen and 89.6% helium. The temperature and voice communications problems continued with communications with the surface being virtually impossible. A 27 hour linear ascent was made from saturation.
The Genesis chamber is still in use as a research facility today at the Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
.
initiated his Man-in-the-Sea dives followed shortly thereafter by Cousteau
and his Conshelf
experiments. "Papa Topside" Bond initiated and served as the Senior Medical Officer and principal investigator
of the US Navy SEALAB
program.
SEALAB I was lowered off the coast of Bermuda
in 1964 to a depth of 192 fsw below the sea's surface. It was constructed from two converted floats and held in place with axle
s from railroad car
s. Bond and Captain Walter Mazzone inspected the habitat prior to the beginning of the project. The experiment involved four divers (LCDR Robert Thompson, MC; Gunners Mate First Class Lester Anderson, Chief Quartermaster Robert A. Barth, and Chief Hospital Corpsman Sanders Manning), who were to stay submerged for three weeks. The experiment was halted after 11 days due to an approaching tropical storm. SEALAB I proved that saturation diving in the open ocean was a viable means for expanding our ability to live and work in the sea. The experiment also provided engineering solutions to habitat placement, habitat umbilicals, humidity, and helium speech descrambling.
SEALAB II was launched in 1965 to assess the feasibility of utilizing saturation techniques and tools "to remain deep beneath the ocean surface indefinitely and accomplish a variety of tasks that would be difficult or impossible to accomplish by repeated dives from the surface." It was placed in the La Jolla Canyon off the coast of California
, at a depth of 205 fsw. On August 28, 1965, the first of three teams of divers moved into what became known as the “Tilton Hilton” (Tiltin' Hilton, because of the slope of the landing site). Unlike SEALAB I, it also included hot showers and refrigeration
. Each team spent 15 days in the habitat
, but aquanaut
/astronaut
Scott Carpenter
remained below for a record 30 days. In addition to physiological testing, the divers tested new tools, methods of salvage, and an electrically heated drysuit. One case of decompression sickness
was treated by Dr. Bond.
SEALAB III used a refurbished SEALAB II habitat, but was placed in water three times as deep. Five teams of nine divers
were scheduled to spend 12 days each in the habitat, testing new salvage techniques and conducting oceanographic
and fishery
studies. According to John Piña Craven
, the U.S. Navy's head of the Deep Submergence Systems Project of which SEALAB was a part, SEALAB III "was plagued with strange failures at the very start of operations". On February 15, 1969, SEALAB III was lowered to 610 fsw (185 m), off San Clemente Island
, California. The habitat soon began to leak and six divers were sent to repair it, but they were unsuccessful. Tragically, during the second attempt, aquanaut Berry L. Cannon
died. The SEALAB program came to a halt, and although the habitat was retrieved, it was eventually scrapped. Aspects of the research continued but no new habitats were built.
was awarded in 1960 for establishing the feasibility of deep submarine escape by locking out of a submarine at a depth of 302 fsw with two additional gold stars being earned for his work with SEALAB I (1964) and SEALAB II (1965).
The US Navy dedicated the new Ocean Simulation Facility at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
in honor of Dr. Bond in 1974.
Bond served on the first Board of Advisors for the National Association of Underwater Instructors
.
Bond's leadership helped establish the Man-In-The-Sea Museum in 1977 with a goal to preserve the history of undersea exploration.
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
(November 14, 1915 – January 3, 1983) was an American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
physician
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
who was known as a leader in the field of undersea
Diving medicine
Diving medicine, also called undersea and hyperbaric medicine , is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of conditions caused by humans entering the undersea environment...
and hyperbaric medicine and the "Father of Saturation Diving
Saturation diving
Saturation diving is a diving technique that allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness when they work at great depth for long periods of time....
".
Early life
George Foote Bond was born November 14, 1915 in Willoughby, OhioWilloughby, Ohio
As of the census of 2000, there were 22,621 people, 10,265 households, and 5,892 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,225.3 people per square mile . There were 10,700 housing units at an average density of 1,052.6 per square mile...
to Robert and Louise Foot Bond. Bond received a Bachelor
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
and Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
from the University of Florida
University of Florida
The University of Florida is an American public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university located on a campus in Gainesville, Florida. The university traces its historical origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its present Gainesville campus since September 1906...
in 1939. He then attended medical school at McGill University
McGill University
Mohammed Fathy is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university...
where he completed his medical training in surgery
Surgery
Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance.An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical...
in 1945. Bond performed his internship at the Memorial Hospital in Charlotte, North Carolina
Charlotte, North Carolina
Charlotte is the largest city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the seat of Mecklenburg County. In 2010, Charlotte's population according to the US Census Bureau was 731,424, making it the 17th largest city in the United States based on population. The Charlotte metropolitan area had a 2009...
. In 1946, Bond established a rural medicine practice in Bat Cave, North Carolina
Bat Cave, North Carolina
Bat Cave is an unincorporated community in Henderson County, North Carolina, United States. It is part of the Asheville Metropolitan Statistical Area....
. Seeing a need in the community, Bond established the Valley Clinic and Hospital in 1948. Bond was recognized by the community as "Doctor of the Year" in 1953. The people of the area showed their affection towards Bond when he appeared on the national television show This Is Your Life
This Is Your Life
This Is Your Life is an American television documentary series broadcast on NBC, originally hosted by its producer, Ralph Edwards from 1952 to 1961. In the show, the host surprises a guest, and proceeds to take them through their life in front of an audience including friends and family.Edwards...
on June 22, 1955.
Navy career
Bond entered active Navy service in 1953. Soon after he qualified as a Diving and SubmarineSubmarine
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
Medical Officer and served as Squadron Medical Officer from 1954 to 1958. Later that year, Bond transferred to the Naval Medical Research Laboratory
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
The Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory is located on the New London Submarine Base in Groton, Connecticut. The laboratory's mission is to protect the health and enhance the performance of United States War Fighters through focused submarine, diving, and surface research solutions.-History...
in Groton, Connecticut
Groton, Connecticut
Groton is a town located on the Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 39,907 at the 2000 census....
where he served as the Officer-in-Charge until 1964. It was during this time that Bond conducted his earliest experiments into saturation diving
Saturation diving
Saturation diving is a diving technique that allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness when they work at great depth for long periods of time....
techniques.
Project Genesis
Albert R. BehnkeAlbert R. Behnke
Captain Albert Richard Behnke Jr. USN was an American physician, who was principally responsible for developing the U.S. Naval Medical Research Institute...
proposed the idea of exposing humans to increased ambient pressures long enough for the blood and tissues to become saturated
Saturation (chemistry)
In chemistry, saturation has six different meanings, all based on reaching a maximum capacity...
with inert gases in 1942. In 1957, Bond began the Genesis project proving that humans could in fact withstand prolonged exposure to different breathing gases and increased environmental pressures. Once saturation is achieved, the amount of time needed for decompression depends on the depth and gases breathed. This was the beginning of saturation diving
Saturation diving
Saturation diving is a diving technique that allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness when they work at great depth for long periods of time....
and the US Navy's Man-in-the-Sea Program.
Genesis was conducted in phases. In 1957 and 1958, the first two phases (A and B) involved exposing animals to saturation in various breathing gases. The experiments are summarized in the table below:
| Phase | Animal | Depth | Duration | Breathing Gas | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A1 | Wistar rats | 198 fsw | 35 hours | Air | Rats all died, attributed to oxygen toxicity Oxygen toxicity Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen at elevated partial pressures. It is also known as oxygen toxicity syndrome, oxygen intoxication, and oxygen poisoning... |
| A2 | Wistar rats | 198 fsw | 14 days | 3% Oxygen/ 97% Nitrogen | 15 of 16 animals survived, lung lesions found in survivors |
| A3 | Wistar rats | 1.5 ATA | 35 hours | Oxygen | Rats all died |
| B1 | Wistar rats | 1 ATA | 16 days | 20% Oxygen/ 80% Helium | All survived |
| B2 | Wistar rats | 200 fsw | 14 days | 3% Oxygen/ 97% Helium | All survived |
| B3 | Wistar rats, Goat Goat The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of... , Squirrel monkey Squirrel monkey The squirrel monkeys are the New World monkeys of the genus Saimiri. They are the only genus in the subfamily Saimirinae.Squirrel monkeys live in the tropical forests of Central and South America in the canopy layer. Most species have parapatric or allopatric ranges in the Amazon, while S... |
200 fsw | 14 days | 3% Oxygen/ 97% Helium | All survived |
Once the animal work was completed, Bond proposed offering "the opportunity for development of ecological systems which would permit man, as a free agent, to live and work to depths at 600 feet, and for periods in excess of 30 days." This proposal was rejected but in 1962, interest in helium-oxygen
Heliox
Heliox is a breathing gas composed of a mixture of helium and oxygen .Heliox has been used medically since the 1930s, and although the medical community adopted it initially to alleviate symptoms of upper airway obstruction, its range of medical uses has since expanded greatly, mostly because of...
atmospheres for manned space flights made Phase C possible.
Fred Korth
Fred Korth
Fred Korth served as Secretary of the Navy during 1962-63; he was also Assistant Secretary of the Army in 1952-53....
was the Secretary of the Navy
United States Secretary of the Navy
The Secretary of the Navy of the United States of America is the head of the Department of the Navy, a component organization of the Department of Defense...
in 1962 and authorized Phase C involving saturation of three subjects at one atmosphere (surface) in a 21.6% oxygen, 4% nitrogen, and 74.4% helium environment for six days. The divers for this trial were Lieutenants John C. Bull, Jr., Albert P. Fisher, Jr., and Chief Quartermaster Robert A. Barth. Physiologically, the subjects showed no changes though difficulty controlling their body temperature as well as changes in their speech from the helium were noted.
Phase D experiments were conducted at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
The United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit is the primary source of diving and hyperbaric operational guidance for the US Navy...
in 1963. The subjects for these trials were Robert A. Barth, Sanders W. Manning, and Raymond R. Lavois. The subjects performed the world's first saturation dive at a depth of 100 feet of seawater (fsw) in a 7% oxygen, 7% nitrogen, and 86% helium environment for 6 days. Light exercise and underwater swimming was performed periodically in the "wet pot" (a water-filled hyperbaric chamber). Again the difficulty controlling their body temperature was a concern and the helium speech became worse at the greater environmental pressure.
Bond returned the team to the Naval Medical Research Laboratory for the Phase E trials in 1963. The divers were John C. Bull, Jr., Robert A. Barth, and Sanders W. Manning. They were saturated for 12 days at 198 fsw breathing 3.9% oxygen, 6.5% nitrogen and 89.6% helium. The temperature and voice communications problems continued with communications with the surface being virtually impossible. A 27 hour linear ascent was made from saturation.
| Bond summarized the Genesis experiments: |
The Genesis chamber is still in use as a research facility today at the Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
The Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory is located on the New London Submarine Base in Groton, Connecticut. The laboratory's mission is to protect the health and enhance the performance of United States War Fighters through focused submarine, diving, and surface research solutions.-History...
.
SEALAB
Following the success of the Genesis Project, Edwin LinkEdwin Albert Link
Edwin Albert Link was a pioneer in aviation, underwater archaeology, and ocean engineering. He is most remembered for inventing the flight simulator, commercialized in 1929, called the "Blue Box" or "Link Trainer", which started the now multi-billion dollar flight simulation industry...
initiated his Man-in-the-Sea dives followed shortly thereafter by Cousteau
Jacques-Yves Cousteau
Jacques-Yves Cousteau was a French naval officer, explorer, ecologist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water...
and his Conshelf
Continental Shelf Station Two
Continental Shelf Station Two or Conshelf Two was an attempt at creating an environment in which men could live and work on the sea floor. It was the successor to Continental Shelf Station One ....
experiments. "Papa Topside" Bond initiated and served as the Senior Medical Officer and principal investigator
Principal investigator
A principal investigator is the lead scientist or engineer for a particular well-defined science project, such as a laboratory study or clinical trial....
of the US Navy SEALAB
SEALAB (United States Navy)
SEALAB I, II, and III were experimental underwater habitats developed by the United States Navy to prove the viability of saturation diving and humans living in isolation for extended periods of time...
program.
SEALAB I was lowered off the coast of Bermuda
Bermuda
Bermuda is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, its nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about to the west-northwest. It is about south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and northeast of Miami, Florida...
in 1964 to a depth of 192 fsw below the sea's surface. It was constructed from two converted floats and held in place with axle
Axle
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to its surroundings, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle...
s from railroad car
Railroad car
A railroad car or railway vehicle , also known as a bogie in Indian English, is a vehicle on a rail transport system that is used for the carrying of cargo or passengers. Cars can be coupled together into a train and hauled by one or more locomotives...
s. Bond and Captain Walter Mazzone inspected the habitat prior to the beginning of the project. The experiment involved four divers (LCDR Robert Thompson, MC; Gunners Mate First Class Lester Anderson, Chief Quartermaster Robert A. Barth, and Chief Hospital Corpsman Sanders Manning), who were to stay submerged for three weeks. The experiment was halted after 11 days due to an approaching tropical storm. SEALAB I proved that saturation diving in the open ocean was a viable means for expanding our ability to live and work in the sea. The experiment also provided engineering solutions to habitat placement, habitat umbilicals, humidity, and helium speech descrambling.
SEALAB II was launched in 1965 to assess the feasibility of utilizing saturation techniques and tools "to remain deep beneath the ocean surface indefinitely and accomplish a variety of tasks that would be difficult or impossible to accomplish by repeated dives from the surface." It was placed in the La Jolla Canyon off the coast of California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, at a depth of 205 fsw. On August 28, 1965, the first of three teams of divers moved into what became known as the “Tilton Hilton” (Tiltin' Hilton, because of the slope of the landing site). Unlike SEALAB I, it also included hot showers and refrigeration
Refrigeration
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. This work is traditionally done by mechanical work, but can also be done by magnetism, laser or other means...
. Each team spent 15 days in the habitat
Underwater habitat
Underwater habitats are underwater structures in which people can live for extended periods and carry out most of the basic human functions of a 24-hour day, such as working, resting, eating, attending to personal hygiene, and sleeping...
, but aquanaut
Aquanaut
An Aquanaut is any individual who remains underwater, exposed to the ambient pressure, long enough to come into equilibrium with his or her breathing media. Usually this is done in an underwater habitat on the seafloor for a period equal to or greater than 24 continuous hours without returning to...
/astronaut
Astronaut
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft....
Scott Carpenter
Scott Carpenter
Malcolm Scott Carpenter is an American engineer, former test pilot, astronaut, and aquanaut. He is best known as one of the original seven astronauts selected for NASA's Project Mercury in April 1959....
remained below for a record 30 days. In addition to physiological testing, the divers tested new tools, methods of salvage, and an electrically heated drysuit. One case of decompression sickness
Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurization...
was treated by Dr. Bond.
SEALAB III used a refurbished SEALAB II habitat, but was placed in water three times as deep. Five teams of nine divers
Underwater diving
Underwater diving is the practice of going underwater, either with breathing apparatus or by breath-holding .Recreational diving is a popular activity...
were scheduled to spend 12 days each in the habitat, testing new salvage techniques and conducting oceanographic
Oceanography
Oceanography , also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean...
and fishery
Fishery
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,...
studies. According to John Piña Craven
John Piña Craven
John Piña Craven is known for his involvement with Bayesian search theory and the recovery of lost objects at sea....
, the U.S. Navy's head of the Deep Submergence Systems Project of which SEALAB was a part, SEALAB III "was plagued with strange failures at the very start of operations". On February 15, 1969, SEALAB III was lowered to 610 fsw (185 m), off San Clemente Island
San Clemente Island
San Clemente Island is the southernmost of the Channel Islands of California. It is owned and operated by the United States Navy, and is a part of Los Angeles County. Defined by the United States Census Bureau as Block Group 2 of Census Tract 5991 of Los Angeles County, California, it is long and...
, California. The habitat soon began to leak and six divers were sent to repair it, but they were unsuccessful. Tragically, during the second attempt, aquanaut Berry L. Cannon
Berry L. Cannon
Berry Louis Cannon was an American aquanaut who served on the SEALAB II and III projects of the U.S. Navy. Cannon died of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair SEALAB III...
died. The SEALAB program came to a halt, and although the habitat was retrieved, it was eventually scrapped. Aspects of the research continued but no new habitats were built.
Memberships, awards, and recognition
Bond was decorated with a Navy Commendation Medal for "heroic, professional, and scientific achievement" while he was the Medical Officer for Submarine Squadron One from 1954 to 1956. The Legion of MeritLegion of Merit
The Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements...
was awarded in 1960 for establishing the feasibility of deep submarine escape by locking out of a submarine at a depth of 302 fsw with two additional gold stars being earned for his work with SEALAB I (1964) and SEALAB II (1965).
The US Navy dedicated the new Ocean Simulation Facility at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit
The United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit is the primary source of diving and hyperbaric operational guidance for the US Navy...
in honor of Dr. Bond in 1974.
Bond served on the first Board of Advisors for the National Association of Underwater Instructors
National Association of Underwater Instructors
The National Association of Underwater Instructors is a non-profit 501 association of SCUBA instructors. It was officially CE and ISO certified in May 2007 in all three diver levels and both instructor levels.-History:...
.
Bond's leadership helped establish the Man-In-The-Sea Museum in 1977 with a goal to preserve the history of undersea exploration.
External links
- Select publications from the Rubicon Research RepositoryRubicon FoundationRubicon Foundation, Inc. is a non-profit organization devoted to contributing to the interdependent dynamic between research, exploration, science and education. The foundation, started in 2002, is located in Durham, North Carolina and is primarily supported by donations and grants. Funding has...