Forestry in the United Kingdom - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Forestry is the management of trees and forests for environmental or economic gain. The United KingdomThe United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

(sometimes abbreviated to UK) is a political unit (specifically a country), the British Isles

British Isles

The British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and...

is a geographical unit (the archipelago lying off the northwest coast of Europe

Europe

Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...

), and Great Britain

Great Britain

Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...

is the name of the largest of those islands. In this article "Great Britain" is sometimes abbreviated to "Britain". The adjective "British" can refer to either the political or the geographical entity. is a good place to practise forestry, because the British Isles

British Isles

are ideal for tree growth, thanks to their mild winters, plentiful rainfall, fertile soil and hill-sheltered topography. Growth rates for broadleaved (hardwood) trees

Hardwood

Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . It may also be used for those trees themselves: these are usually broad-leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen.Hardwood contrasts with softwood...

exceed those of mainland Europe, while conifer (softwood)

Softwood

The term softwood is used to describe wood from trees that are known as gymnosperms.Conifers are an example. It may also be used to describe trees, which tend to be evergreen, notable exceptions being bald cypress and the larches....

growth rates are three times those of Sweden

Sweden

Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....

and five times those of Finland

Finland

Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...

. In the absence of people, much of Great Britain

Great Britain

would be covered with mature oak

Oak

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...

s, except for Scotland. Although conditions for forestry are good, trees do face damage threats arising from fungi, parasites and pests.

Nowadays, about 10% of Britain's land surface is wooded. This area is increasing. The country's supply of timber was severely depleted during the First

World War I

World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

and Second

World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

World Wars, when imports were difficult, and the forested area bottomed out at under 5% of Britain's land surface in 1919. That year, the Forestry Commission

Forestry Commission

The Forestry Commission is a non-ministerial government department responsible for forestry in Great Britain. Its mission is to protect and expand Britain's forests and woodlands and increase their value to society and the environment....

was established to produce a strategic reserve of timber. However, the recovery is still very much in progress. European countries average 25% of their area as woodland.

Of the 23000 square kilometres (8,880.3 sq mi) of forest in Britain, around 40% is state-owned and 60% is in the private sector.In fact, this is not easy to establish. There is no complete register of who owns land in the United Kingdom. (.) HM Land Registry records purchases by way of conveyance, but where land has not changed hands since the Land Registry was established in 1862, no records exist. Two attempts have been made to take a complete census of ownership (the Domesday Book in 1086 and a census in 1873) but both contain significant omissions and are extremely dated besides; and much of the forested land is on long-established estates where ownership is not recorded on any register that can be examined.

The 40%/60% figure is, however, probably not too far from the mark. More than 40,000 people work on this land. Broadleaves account for 29% of Britain's woodlands, the rest being conifers, but considering only England

England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...

, the figures are 55% broadleaf and 45% conifer. Britain's native tree flora comprises 32 species, of which 29 are broadleaves. Britain's industry and populace uses at least 50 million tonnes of timber a year. More than 75% of this is softwood, and Britain's forests cannot supply the demand; in fact, less than 10% of the timber used in Britain is home-grown. Paper and paper products make up more than half the wood consumed in Britain by volume.

History

Throughout most of British history, the trend has been to create farmland at the expense of forest. Furthermore, variations in the Holocene

Holocene

The Holocene is a geological epoch which began at the end of the Pleistocene and continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period. Its name comes from the Greek words and , meaning "entirely recent"...

climate have led to significant changes in the ranges of many species. This makes it complex to estimate the likely extent of natural forest cover. For example, in Scotland

Scotland

Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...

four main areas have been identified: oak dominated forest south of the Highland Line

Highland Boundary Fault

The Highland Boundary Fault is a geological fault that traverses Scotland from Arran and Helensburgh on the west coast to Stonehaven in the east...

, Scots Pine

Scots Pine

Pinus sylvestris, commonly known as the Scots Pine, is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia...

in the Central Highlands

Scottish Highlands

The Highlands is an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands...

, hazel

Hazel

The hazels are a genus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate northern hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae, though some botanists split the hazels into a separate family Corylaceae.They have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins...

/oak or pine

Pine

Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...

/birch

Birch

Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...

/oak assemblages in the north-east and south-west Highlands, and birch in the Outer Hebrides

Outer Hebrides

The Outer Hebrides also known as the Western Isles and the Long Island, is an island chain off the west coast of Scotland. The islands are geographically contiguous with Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, one of the 32 unitary council areas of Scotland...

, Northern Isles

Northern Isles

The Northern Isles is a chain of islands off the north coast of mainland Scotland. The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas. There are two main island groups: Shetland and Orkney...

and far north of the mainland. Furthermore, the effects of fire, human clearance and grazing probably limited forest cover to about 50% of the land area of Scotland even at its maximum. The stock of woodland declined alarmingly during the First World War and at the end of the war the Acland Report recommended that Britain should secure a strategic reserve of timber. The Forestry Commission was formed to meet this need. State forest parks were established in 1935.

Emergency felling controls had been introduced in the First and Second World Wars, and these were made permanent in the Forestry Act 1951. Landowners were also given financial incentives to devote land to forests under the Dedication Scheme, which in 1981 became the Forestry Grant Scheme. By the early 1970s, the annual rate of planting exceeded 40000 hectares (98,842.1 acre) per annum. Most of this planting comprised fast-growing conifers. Later in the century the balance shifted, with fewer than 20000 hectares (49,421 acre) per annum being planted during the 1990s, but broadleaf planting actually increased, exceeding 1000 hectares (2,471.1 acre) per year in 1987. By the mid-1990s, more than half of new planting was broadleaf.)

In 1988, the Woodland Grant Scheme replaced the Forestry Grant Scheme, paying nearly twice as much for broadleaf woodland as conifers. (In England, the Woodland Grant Scheme was subsequently replaced by the English Woodland Grant Scheme, which operates six separate kinds of grant for forestry projects.) That year, the Farm Woodlands Scheme was also introduced, and replaced by the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme in 1992. In the 1990s, a programme of afforestation

Afforestation

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no forest. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally or artificially...

resulted in the establishment of Community Forests

Community Forests in England

England's twelve community forests are afforestation-based regeneration projects which were established in the early 1990s. Each of them is a partnership between the Forestry Commission and the Countryside Agency, which are agencies of the British government, and the relevant local councils.Most of...

and the National Forest

National Forest, England

The National Forest is one of England’s most ambitious environmental projects. Across parts of Leicestershire, Derbyshire and Staffordshire, are being transformed, blending ancient woodland with new planting to create a new national forest...

, which celebrated the planting of its seven millionth tree in 2006. As a result of these initiatives, the British Isles are one of a very few places in the world where the stock of forested land is actually increasing, though the rate of increase has slowed since the turn of the millennium.

Ancient woodland

Ancient woodland is defined as any woodland that has been continuously forested since 1600. It is recorded on either the Register of Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland or the Register of Planted Woodland Sites. There is no woodland in Britain that has not been profoundly affected by human intervention. Apart from certain native pinewoods in Scotland, it is predominantly broadleaf. Such woodland is less productive, in terms of timber yield, but ecologically rich, typically containing a number of "indicator species

Indicator species

An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate change...

" of indigenous wildlife.

Native and historic tree species

Britain is relatively impoverished in terms of native species. For example, only thirty-one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland, including ten willow

Willow

Willows, sallows, and osiers form the genus Salix, around 400 species of deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere...

s, four whitebeam

Whitebeam

The whitebeams are members of the Rosaceae family, comprising subgenus Aria of genus Sorbus, and hybrids involving species of this subgenus and members of subgenera Sorbus, Torminaria and Chamaemespilus. They are deciduous trees with simple or lobed leaves, arranged alternately...

s and three birch

Birch

Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...

and cherry

Prunus

Prunus is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes the plums, cherries, peaches, apricots and almonds. There are around 430 species spread throughout the northern temperate regions of the globe. Many members of the genus are widely cultivated for fruit and ornament.-Botany:Members of the genus...

.This source includes the following shrubs and small trees that do not appear in and :
Betula nana, Prunus spinosa
Prunus spinosa
Prunus spinosa is a species of Prunus native to Europe, western Asia, and locally in northwest Africa. It is also locally naturalised in New Zealand and eastern North America....

, Rosa canina, Salix cinerea, Salix aurita
Salix aurita
Salix aurita is a species of willow distributed over much of Europe, and occasionally cultivated. It is a shrub to 2.5 m in height, distinguished from the similar but slightly larger Salix cinerea by its reddish petioles and young twigs. It was given its name because of the persistent...

, Salix lanata
Salix lanata
Salix lanata, the common name is Wooly Willow, is a species of willow native to tundra regions over much of the Circumboreal Region.-Description:...

, Salix lapponum (Downy willow), Salix phylicifolia
Salix phylicifolia
Salix phylicifolia is a species of willow native to Europe, the Faroe Islands, Scandinavia, Finland, Russia, and Western Siberia.-External links:*...

, Salix arbuscala (Mountain willow), Salix myrsinites (Whortle-leaved willow), Salix myrsinifolia
Salix myrsinifolia
Salix myrsinifolia is a species of willow native to Europe and Western Siberia. It forms a 2–5 m high shrub. In the north it becomes often a tree up to 8 m tall....

, Salix reticulata
Salix reticulata
Salix reticulata, the Net-leaved Willow, is a dwarf willow, occurring in the colder parts of Northern Europe, Greenland, North America and Northern Asia...

, Sambucus nigra
Sambucus nigra
Sambucus nigra is a species complex of elder native to most of Europe.It is most commonly called Elder, Elderberry, Black Elder, European Elder, European Elderberry, European Black Elderberry, Common Elder, or Elder Bush when distinction from other species of Sambucus is needed...

, Viburnum opulus
Viburnum opulus
Viburnum opulus is a species of Viburnum, native to Europe and Asia. Some botanists also treat the closely related North American species Viburnum trilobum as a variety of it , or a subspecies, Viburnum opulus subsp...

. also lists the Arran Whitebeams: Sorbus rupicola
Sorbus rupicola
Sorbus rupicola, known as Rock Whitebeam, is a rare shrub or small tree best known from the British Isles but also reported from Norway, Sweden and Russia. It prefers basic soil near edges of forests or other shrubs. If growing to full trees, S. rupicola can reach heights of 3—5 m...

(Rock Whitebeam), Sorbus pseudofennica
Sorbus pseudofennica
Sorbus pseudofennica is a species of plant in the Rosaceae family. It is a naturally occurring hybrid caused by the Rock Whitebeam hybridising with the Rowan , then crossing back with S. aucuparia...

and Sorbus arranensis
Sorbus arranensis
Sorbus arranensis, sometimes referred to as the Scottish or Arran Whitebeam is a species of plant in the Rosaceae family. It is endemic to the island of Arran in Scotland.-Range and habitat:...

although not the very rare and recently discovered Sorbus pseudomeinichii
Sorbus pseudomeinichii
Sorbus pseudomeinichii, known as Catacol Whitebeam, is a rare tree endemic to the Isle of Arran in south west Scotland. It is believed to have arisen as a hybrid of the native Rowan and the Cut-leaved Whitebeam which is in turn a Rowan/Arran Whitebeam hybrid...

This is a list of tree species that existed in Britain before 1900. The sheer number of tree species planted subsequently precludes a complete list.All the information in the table that follows is adapted from , and .

Common name	Scientific name	Period	Type	\| Notes
Ash	Fraxinus excelsior	Native	Broadleaf	-
Aspen	Populus tremula Populus tremula Populus tremula, commonly called aspen, common aspen, Eurasian aspen, European aspen, trembling poplar, or quaking aspen, is a species of poplar native to cool temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from the British Isles east to Kamchatka, north to inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Atlas cedar	Cedrus atlantica	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Austrian pine	Pinus nigra	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Bay willow	Salix pentandra	Native	Broadleaf	-
Beech	Fagus sylvatica	Native	Broadleaf	-
Bird cherry	Prunus padus	Native	Broadleaf	-
Black cottonwood	Populus trichocarpa Populus trichocarpa Populus trichocarpa is a deciduous broadleaf tree species native to western North America. It is used for timber, and is notable as a model organism in plant biology. Its full genome sequence was published in 2006...	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
Black poplar	Populus nigra	Native	Broadleaf	-
Black walnut	Juglans nigra	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Box	Buxus sempervirens Buxus sempervirens Buxus sempervirens is a flowering plant in the genus Buxus, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia, from southern England south to northern Morocco, and east through the northern Mediterranean region to Turkey. Buxus colchica of western Caucasus and B...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Caucasian fir	Abies nordmanniana	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Cedar of Lebanon	Cedrus libani	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Coast redwood	Sequoia sempervirens	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Common alder	Alnus glutinosa	Native	Broadleaf	-
Common juniper	Juniperus communis Juniperus communis Juniperus communis, the Common Juniper, is a species in the genus Juniperus, in the family Cupressaceae. It has the largest range of any woody plant, throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic south in mountains to around 30°N latitude in North America, Europe and Asia.-...	Native	Conifer	-
Common lime	Tilia x vulgaris	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Common silver fir	Abies alba	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Common walnut	Juglans regia	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Corsican pine	Pinus nigra	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Crab apple	Malus sylvestris Malus sylvestris Malus sylvestris, the European wild apple, is a species of Malus , native to Europe from as far south as Spain, Italy and Greece to as far north as Scandinavia and Russia. Its scientific name means "forest apple", and the truly wild tree has thorns.In the past, M. sylvestris was thought to be an...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Crack willow	Salix fragilis	Native	Broadleaf	-
Cricket-bat willow	Salix alba, var caerulea	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Deodar cedar	Cedrus deodara	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Douglas fir	Pseudotsuga menziesii	1800–1900	Conifer	Tallest tree in the UK
Downy birch	Betula pubescens	Native	Broadleaf	May have been the first tree to grow in Britain after the ice age
English elm	Ulmus procera	pre-1600	Broadleaf	Despite the name, not a native species
Eucalypts	Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia... species	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
European larch	Larix decidua	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Field maple	Acer campestre	Native	Broadleaf	-
Giant fir	Abies grandis	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Grey alder	Alnus glutinosa	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Grey poplar	Populus x canescens	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Hawthorn	Crataegus monogyna	Native	Broadleaf	-
Hazel	Corylus avellana Corylus avellana Corylus avellana, the Common Hazel, is a species of hazel native to Europe and western Asia, from the British Isles south to Iberia, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, north to central Scandinavia, and east to the central Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, and northwestern Iran. It is an important component of...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Holly	Ilex aquifolium	Native	Broadleaf	-
Holm oak	Quercus ilex	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Hornbeam	Carpinus betulus	Native	Broadleaf	-
Horse chestnut	Aesculus hippocastanum	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Italian alder	Alnus cordata	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
Japanese larch	Larix kaempferi	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Large-leaved lime	Tilia platyphyllos Tilia platyphyllos Tilia platyphyllos is a deciduous tree native to much of Europe, including locally in southwestern Great Britain, growing on lime-rich soils. The common name Large-leaved Linden is in standard use throughout the English-speaking world except in Britain, where it has largely been replaced by the...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Lawson cypress	Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Chamaecyparis lawsoniana is a cypress in the genus Chamaecyparis, family Cupressaceae, known by the name Lawson's Cypress in the horticultural trade, or Port Orford-cedar in its native range . C...	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Lodgepole pine	Pinus contorta	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Lombardy poplar	Populus nigra var. italica	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
London plane	Platanus x hispanica	1600–1800	Broadleaf
Maritime pine	Pinus pinaster	pre-1600	Conifer	-
Midland thorn	Crataegus laevigata	Native	Broadleaf	-
Monkey puzzle	Araucaria araucana Araucaria araucana Araucaria araucana is an evergreen tree growing to tall with a trunk diameter. The tree is native to central and southern Chile, western Argentina and south Brazil. Araucaria araucana is the hardiest species in the conifer genus Araucaria...	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Monterey cypress	Cupressus macrocarpa Cupressus macrocarpa Cupressus macrocarpa, commonly known as Monterey Cypress or Macrocarpa, is a species of cypress that is endemic to the Central Coast of California. In the wild, the species is confined to two small populations, near Monterey and Carmel, California. These two small populations represent what was...	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Monterey pine	Pinus radiata	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Noble fir	Abies procera	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Norway maple	Acer platanoides	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Norway spruce	Picea abies	pre-1600	Conifer	Supplanted as most common forestry species by Sitka spruce
Oriental plane	Platanus orientalis Platanus orientalis Platanus orientalis, or the Oriental plane, is a large, deciduous tree of the Platanaceae family, known for its longevity and spreading crown. The species name derives from its historical distribution eastward from the Balkans, where it was recognized in ancient Greek history and literature....	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Pedunculate oak	Quercus robur	Native	Broadleaf	Also called the English Oak
Red alder	Alnus rubra	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
Red oak	Quercus rubra	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Robusta poplar	Populus x robusta	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
Rowan	Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus aucuparia , is a species of the genus Sorbus, native to most of Europe except for the far south, and northern Asia...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Sallow (Goat willow)	Salix caprea	Native	Broadleaf	-
Scots pine	Pinus sylvestris	Native	Conifer	-
Serotina poplar	Populus serotina	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Sessile oak	Quercus petraea	Native	Broadleaf	-
Silver birch	Betula pendula	Native	Broadleaf	-
Sitka spruce	Picea sitchensis	1800–1900	Conifer	Most common forestry species
Small-leaved lime	Tilia cordata Tilia cordata Tilia cordata is a species of Tilia native to much of Europe and western Asia, north to southern Great Britain , central Scandinavia, east to central Russia, and south to central Spain, Italy, Bulgaria, Turkey, and the Caucasus; in the south of its range it is restricted to...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Smooth-leaved elm	Ulmus carpinifolia	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Southern beech	Nothofagus antarctica Nothofagus antarctica Nothofagus antarctica , is a deciduous tree or shrub native to southern Chile and Argentina from about 36°S to Tierra del Fuego . The southernmost occurrence is on Hoste Island, making it the southernmost trees on earth...	1800–1900	Broadleaf	-
Swamp cypress	Taxodium distichum Taxodium distichum Taxodium distichum is a species of conifer native to the southeastern United States.-Characteristics:...	1600–1800	Conifer	-
Swedish whitebeam	Sorbus intermedia Sorbus intermedia Sorbus intermedia is a species of whitebeam in southern Sweden, with scattered occurrences in easternmost Denmark , the far southwest of Finland), the Baltic States, and northern Poland....	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Sweet chestnut	Castanea sativa	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Sycamore	Acer pseudoplatanus	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
Turkey oak	Quercus cerris	1600–1800	Broadleaf	-
Wellingtonia	Sequoiadendron giganteum	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Western hemlock	Tsuga heterophylla	1800–1900	Conifer	-
Western red cedar	Thuja plicata Thuja plicata Thuja plicata, commonly called Western or pacific red cedar, giant or western arborvitae, giant cedar, or shinglewood, is a species of Thuja, an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae native to western North America...	1800–1900	Conifer	-
White poplar	Populus alba	pre-1600	Broadleaf	-
White willow	Salix alba	Native	Broadleaf	-
Whitebeam	Sorbus aria Sorbus aria Sorbus aria , the Whitebeam or Common Whitebeam is a deciduous tree, compact and domed, with few upswept branches; it generally favours dry limestone and chalk soils. The hermaphrodite cream-white flowers appear in May, are insect pollinated, and go on to produce scarlet berries, which are often...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Wild cherry (Gean)	Prunus avium Prunus avium Prunus avium, commonly called wild cherry, sweet cherry, bird cherry, or gean, is a species of cherry, native to Europe, west Turkey, northwest Africa, and western Asia, from the British Isles south to Morocco and Tunisia, north to the Trondheimsfjord region in Norway and east to the Caucasus, and...	Native	Broadleaf	-
Wild service tree	Sorbus torminalis	Native	Broadleaf	-
Wych elm	Ulmus glabra	Native	Broadleaf	-
Yew	Taxus baccata Taxus baccata Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia. It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the English yew, or European yew.-Description:It is a small-...	Native	Conifer	-

Threats

Most serious disease threats to British woodland involve fungus. For conifers, the greatest threat is White Rot Fungus (Heterobasidion annosum
Heterobasidion annosum
Heterobasidion annosum is a basidiomycete fungus in the family Bondarzewiaceae. It is considered to be the most economically important forest pathogen in the Northern Hemisphere. Heterobasidion annosum is widespread in forests in the United States and is responsible for the loss of one billion U.S....

). Dutch Elm Disease

Dutch elm disease

Dutch elm disease is a disease caused by a member of the sac fungi category, affecting elm trees which is spread by the elm bark beetle. Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease has been accidentally introduced into America and Europe, where it has devastated native...

arises from two related species of fungi in the genus Ophiostoma, spread by Elm Bark Beetles. Another fungus, Nectria coccinea
Nectria coccinea
Nectria coccinea is a fungal plant pathogen. The variant Nectria coccinea var. faginata causes beech bark disease, and can infect the tree via the feeding holes made by the beech scale insect Cryptococcus fagisuga.- External links :* *...

, causes Beech bark disease

Beech Bark Disease

Beech bark disease is a disease that causes mortality and defects in beech trees in the eastern United States and Europe. In North America, the disease results when the beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, attacks the bark, creating a wound. Later, two different fungi Beech bark disease is a...

, as does Bulgaria polymorpha. Ash canker results from Nectria galligena or Pseudomonas savastanoi
Pseudomonas savastanoi
Pseudomonas savastanoi is a Gram-negative plant pathogenic bacterium that infects a variety of plants. It was once considered a pathovar of Pseudomonas syringae, but following DNA-relatedness studies, it was instated as a new species....

, and most trees are vulnerable to Honey Fungus (Armillaria mellea
Armillaria mellea
Armillaria mellea is a plant pathogen and a species of Honey fungus. It causes Armillaria root rot in many plant species. The mushrooms are edible but some people may be intolerant to them. The fungus produces mushrooms around the base of trees it has infected...

). However, sudden oak death

Sudden oak death

Sudden Oak Death is the common name of a disease caused by the oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. The disease kills oak and other species of tree and has had devastating effects on the oak populations in California and Oregon as well as also being present in Europe...

is caused by the oomycete Phytophthora ramorum, and acute oak decline

Acute oak decline

Acute oak decline is a new disease that infects oak trees in the UK. It mainly affects mature oak trees of over 50 years old of both of Britain's native oaks: the pedunculate oak and the sessile oak . The disease is characterised by the trees bleeding or oozing a dark fluid from small lesions or...

has a bacteria

Bacteria

Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...

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Beetles, moths and weevils can also damage trees, but the majority do not cause serious harm. Notable exceptions include the Large Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis
Hylobius abietis
Hylobius abietis is a beetle belonging to the family Curculionidae . It shares the common name pine weevil with the rarer Hylobius pinastri. This weevil is a common associate of conifers throughout Europe....

), which can kill young conifers, the Spruce Bark Beetle (Ips typographus) which can kill spruce

Spruce

A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...

s, and the Cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha) which eats young tree roots and can kill in a dry season. Rabbits, squirrels, voles, field mice, deer, and farm animals also pose a significant threat to trees. Air pollution, acid rain, and fire represent the main environmental hazards.

Timber industry

In 2009, the UK produced 2,818,000 cubic metres of sawn wood, 2,565,000 cubic metres of wood-based panels and 4,983,000 cubic metres of paper and paperboard. This was down from 2008 figures of 3,145,000 cubic metres of sawn wood, 3,549,000 cubic metres of wood-based panels, and 5,228,000 cubic metres of paper and paperboard. The UK does not produce enough timber to satisfy domestic demand, and the country has been a net importer of timber and paper for many years. In 2008 the country imported sawn and other wood to a value of £

Pound sterling

The pound sterling , commonly called the pound, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, its Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 pence...

1,243 million and exported £98 million; imported £832 million of wood-based panels and exported £104 million; and imported paper and paper-based products to a value of £4,273 million and exported £1,590 million. In 2007 approximately 42,000 people were employed in forestry and primary wood production in the country, resulting in a gross value added to the country of £2,051 million.

Planting

Successful forestry requires healthy, well-formed trees that are resistant to diseases and parasites. The best wood has a straight, circular stem without a spiral grain or fluting, and small, evenly-spaced branches. The chances of achieving these are maximised by planting good-quality seed in the best possible growing environment.

Commercial seed is relatively inexpensive,Commercial seed typically represents less than 0.1% of the overall cost of a plantation. See . but some foresters still prefer to collect their own seed. This should be done in dry weather, the seed kept in a well-ventilated place away from damp; broadleaved seeds do not keep well in long-term storage (apart from oak, sweet chestnut and sycamore, which can be kept). Conifer seed does tend to be storable. Stored seed is best pre-treated by being chilled and moistened before planting.

Tree breeding programmes, to ensure the best seed, are hampered by the trees' long life-cycles. However, particularly since the 1950s, the Forestry Commission among other organisations has been running a programme of breeding, propagation, induced flowering and controlled pollination with the aim of producing healthy, disease-resistant, fast-growing stock.

History

Ancient woodland

Native and historic tree species

Threats

Timber industry

Planting

See also