Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
Encyclopedia
Since their discovery, anabolic steroids (AAS) have been widely used as an ergogenic aid
to improve performance in sports, to improve one's physical appearance, as self-medication
to recover from injury, and as an anti-aging aid.
Use of anabolic steroids for purposes other than treating medical conditions is controversial and, in some cases, illegal. Major sports organizations have moved to ban the use of anabolic steroids. There is a wide range of health concerns for users. Legislation in many countries restricts and criminalizes AAS possession and trade. A political counter current has formed in some of these countries..
by societies around the world, with the aim of promoting vitality and strength. The use of gonadal hormone
s pre-dates their identification and isolation. Medical use of testicle
extract began in the late 19th century, while its effects on strength were still being studied. In 1889, the 72-year-old British neurologist
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard
injected himself with an extract of dog and guinea pig
testicles, and reported at a scientific meeting that these injections had led to a variety of beneficial effects. However, almost all experts, including some of Brown-Sequard's contemporaries, had agreed that these positive effects were induced by Brown-Séquard himself. In 2002, a study replicating Brown-Séquard's method determined that the amount of testosterone
obtained was too low to have any clinical effect.
Testosterone, the most active anabolic-androgenic steroid produced by Leydig cells in the testes, was first isolated in 1935 and chemically synthesized
later in the same year. Synthetic derivatives of testosterone quickly followed. By the end of the following decade, both testosterone and its derivatives were applied with varying degrees of success for a number of medical conditions. It was not until the 1950s, however, that athletes began to discover that anabolic steroids could increase their muscle mass
. According to sports physician John Ziegler
, the first confirmed use of an anabolic steroid in an international athletic competition was at the weightlifting championships in Vienna in 1954, when the Russians weightlifters used testosterone.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the use of anabolic steroids was confined largely to the professional levels of sport. In the Eastern bloc
, programs of training went as far as forcing some athletes to take anabolic steroids. In the United States, sports physicians, including Ziegler, and medical texts were still widely proclaiming that anabolic steroids were ineffective in helping athletes gain muscle. These doctors did acknowledge the usefulness of anabolic steroids for debilitated patients. The package insert for Dianabol, a common anabolic steroid used at the time, stated, "Anabolic steroids do not enhance athletic ability." Despite these warnings, use of anabolic steroids began in competition bodybuilding, in track and field
events, such as the shot put
, and in other sports where performance depended on muscle strength or speed of recovery during training.
At the end of the 1960s, Science
published a study on the effects of Dianabol on athletes. This open label study, conducted by J.P. O'Shea and colleagues at Oregon State University
, confirmed the muscle building effects of anabolic steroids on athletes that followed a high protein diet. Two years later, O'Shea replicated the results in a double blind design.
At the beginning of the 1970s, sporting organizations, including the IOC and NCAA, declared the use of anabolic steroids unethical, but with no effective means of testing athletes, the issue remained academic.
age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes. They cite using the drugs for cosmetic purposes. Another study found that non-medical use of anabolic steroids among college students was at, or less than, 1%. According to a 2006 survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes. About 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multi-dose vials, though a 2007 study found sharing of needles was extremely uncommon
(less than 1%) among individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes. Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical anabolic steroid users had secondary college degrees and more had completed college and less had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general population. The same study found that individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population. Anabolic steroid users research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.
Anabolic steroid users tend to be disillusioned by the portrayal of anabolic steroids as deadly in the media and in politics. According to one study, anabolic steroid users also distrust their physicians, and in the sample, 56% had not disclosed their anabolic steroid use to their physicians. Another 2007 study showed that while 66% of individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical anabolic steroid use was lacking, and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side effects of anabolic steroid use. A 2006 study has showed that long-term anabolic steroid users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia
and also showed stronger endorsement of more traditional male roles.
, track and field
, weightlifting, bodybuilding
, shot put
, cycling
, baseball
, wrestling
, mixed martial arts
, boxing
, and football
. Such use is prohibited by many of the professional and amateur associations that organize these sports.
Anabolic steroid use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%. Male students used anabolic steroids more frequently than female students and, on average, those who participated in sports used steroids more often than those who did not.
football
player Lyle Alzado
died from brain cancer, which he said was caused by his steroid use. Although steroids have been known to cause liver cancer, there is no published evidence that anabolic steroids cause either brain cancer or the specific type of T-cell lymphoma
that caused Alzado's death. However, Alzado also stated that he felt addicted to steroids and that he had become increasingly violent.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
admitted to using anabolic steroids for many years during his bodybuilding career. In 1997, he underwent surgery to correct a heart defect. Some have assumed this was because of his use of anabolic steroids. Although the use of anabolic steroids can sometimes cause enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle, Schwarzenegger was born with a congenital
genetic defect in which his heart had a bicuspid aortic valve
, a condition that rendered his aortic valve with two cusps instead of three, which can occasionally cause problems later in life.
, Major League Baseball
, the National Football League
, the National Basketball Association
, the National Hockey League
, WWE
, ICC
, ITF
, FIFA
, FINA
, UEFA
, the European Athletic Association
, and the Brazilian Football Confederation
. Anabolic steroids are controlled substance
s in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom
(UK), and the United States (U.S.). In some countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter drug
s.
The Olympics
, the National Basketball Association
, the National Hockey League
, and the National Football League
also ban the use of anabolic steroids. The World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports associations and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all anabolic steroids and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances. Spain passed an anti-doping law that created a national anti-doping agency. Italy passed a law in 2000 where penalties range up to three years in prison if an athlete has tested positive for banned substances. In 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin
signed into law ratification of the International Convention Against Doping in Sport, which would encourage cooperation with WADA. Many other countries have similar legislation prohibiting anabolic steroids in sports, including Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and Sweden.
, which makes the possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to seven years in prison. In Canada, anabolic steroids and their derivatives are part of the Controlled drugs and substances act and are Schedule IV substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription. However, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling anabolic steroids in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months. Importing or exporting anabolic steroids also carry similar penalties. Anabolic steroids are also illegal without prescription in Australia, Argentina, Brazil, and Portugal, and are listed as Schedule 4 Controlled Drug
s in the United Kingdom. However, anabolic steroids are readily available without a prescription in some countries, such as Mexico and Thailand.
in Seoul
. During deliberations, the American Medical Association
(AMA), Drug Enforcement Administration
(DEA), Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse
(NIDA) all opposed listing anabolic steroids as controlled substances. These organizations argued that use of these drugs does not lead to the physical or psychological dependence required for such scheduling under the Controlled Substance Act. However, anabolic steroids were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990. The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after non-medical use of anabolic steroids was criminalized in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the products. Some brand names included Ciba, Searle, and Syntex. In the Controlled Substances Act, anabolic steroids are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than estrogen
s, progestin
s, and corticosteroid
s) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added prohormone
s to the list of controlled substance
s, with effect from January 20, 2005.
suggested that anabolic steroids are less dangerous than most other illegal substances, and some legal ones.
In countries where anabolic steroids are illegal or controlled, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through black market trade. These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be smuggled
across international borders. Like most significant smuggling operations, organized crime
is involved.
In September 2007, the DEA completed an 18-month international investigation of illicit anabolic steroid use in which 124 arrests were made. The investigation targeted more than 25 Chinese companies which produced raw materials for producing steroids and human growth hormone
. The companies exported raw products to Mexico, where the consumer products were packaged. The investigation, dubbed "Operation Gear Grinder," was the largest anabolic steroid operation in the United States, and involved China, Mexico, Canada, Australia, Germany, and Thailand, among other countries. The investigation also focused on online message boards where advice was given on how to use anabolic steroids. The DEA also intercepted thousands of e-mails in the course of the investigation. The DEA
has stated that the e-mails intercepted were compiled into a massive database of names which could lead to months or years of future arrests of steroid users.
stopped making and marketing anabolic steroids within the U.S. However, in many other regions, particularly Eastern Europe, they are still mass produced. European anabolic steroids are the source of most medical grade anabolic steroids sold illegally in North America.
Anabolic steroids are still in wide use for veterinary purposes, and often contain the same components as those prepared for humans, but without the same quality control. These can also be dangerous, as they may have been produced and handled in cruder and less sterile environments.
Ergogenic aid
Ergogenic aids are any external influences that can be determined to enhance performance. These include mechanical aids , pharmacological aids, physiological aids, nutritional aids , and psychological aids....
to improve performance in sports, to improve one's physical appearance, as self-medication
Self-medication
Self-medication is a term used to describe the use of drugs or other self-soothing forms of behavior to treat untreated and often undiagnosed mental distress, stress and anxiety, including mental illnesses and/or psychological trauma...
to recover from injury, and as an anti-aging aid.
Use of anabolic steroids for purposes other than treating medical conditions is controversial and, in some cases, illegal. Major sports organizations have moved to ban the use of anabolic steroids. There is a wide range of health concerns for users. Legislation in many countries restricts and criminalizes AAS possession and trade. A political counter current has formed in some of these countries..
History
Performance-enhancing substances have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicineTraditional medicine
Traditional medicine comprises unscientific knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine...
by societies around the world, with the aim of promoting vitality and strength. The use of gonadal hormone
Hormone
A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one...
s pre-dates their identification and isolation. Medical use of testicle
Testicle
The testicle is the male gonad in animals. Like the ovaries to which they are homologous, testes are components of both the reproductive system and the endocrine system...
extract began in the late 19th century, while its effects on strength were still being studied. In 1889, the 72-year-old British neurologist
Neurologist
A neurologist is a physician who specializes in neurology, and is trained to investigate, or diagnose and treat neurological disorders.Neurology is the medical specialty related to the human nervous system. The nervous system encompasses the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. A specialist...
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard
Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard FRS , also known as Charles Edward, was a Mauritian physiologist and neurologist who, in 1850, became the first to describe what is now called Brown-Séquard syndrome.-Early life:...
injected himself with an extract of dog and guinea pig
Guinea pig
The guinea pig , also called the cavy, is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia. Despite their common name, these animals are not in the pig family, nor are they from Guinea...
testicles, and reported at a scientific meeting that these injections had led to a variety of beneficial effects. However, almost all experts, including some of Brown-Sequard's contemporaries, had agreed that these positive effects were induced by Brown-Séquard himself. In 2002, a study replicating Brown-Séquard's method determined that the amount of testosterone
Testosterone
Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and other vertebrates. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands...
obtained was too low to have any clinical effect.
Testosterone, the most active anabolic-androgenic steroid produced by Leydig cells in the testes, was first isolated in 1935 and chemically synthesized
Chemical synthesis
In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions...
later in the same year. Synthetic derivatives of testosterone quickly followed. By the end of the following decade, both testosterone and its derivatives were applied with varying degrees of success for a number of medical conditions. It was not until the 1950s, however, that athletes began to discover that anabolic steroids could increase their muscle mass
Muscle
Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
. According to sports physician John Ziegler
John Bosley Ziegler
John Bosley Ziegler, John Ziegler, Montana Jack, was an American physician who originally developed the anabolic steroid Methandrostenolone which was released in the USA in 1958 by Ciba. He pioneered its athletic use as an aid to muscle growth by bodybuilders, administering it to U.S...
, the first confirmed use of an anabolic steroid in an international athletic competition was at the weightlifting championships in Vienna in 1954, when the Russians weightlifters used testosterone.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the use of anabolic steroids was confined largely to the professional levels of sport. In the Eastern bloc
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
, programs of training went as far as forcing some athletes to take anabolic steroids. In the United States, sports physicians, including Ziegler, and medical texts were still widely proclaiming that anabolic steroids were ineffective in helping athletes gain muscle. These doctors did acknowledge the usefulness of anabolic steroids for debilitated patients. The package insert for Dianabol, a common anabolic steroid used at the time, stated, "Anabolic steroids do not enhance athletic ability." Despite these warnings, use of anabolic steroids began in competition bodybuilding, in track and field
Track and field
Track and field is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for the competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area...
events, such as the shot put
Shot put
The shot put is a track and field event involving "putting" a heavy metal ball—the shot—as far as possible. It is common to use the term "shot put" to refer to both the shot itself and to the putting action....
, and in other sports where performance depended on muscle strength or speed of recovery during training.
At the end of the 1960s, Science
Science (journal)
Science is the academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is one of the world's top scientific journals....
published a study on the effects of Dianabol on athletes. This open label study, conducted by J.P. O'Shea and colleagues at Oregon State University
Oregon State University
Oregon State University is a coeducational, public research university located in Corvallis, Oregon, United States. The university offers undergraduate, graduate and doctoral degrees and a multitude of research opportunities. There are more than 200 academic degree programs offered through the...
, confirmed the muscle building effects of anabolic steroids on athletes that followed a high protein diet. Two years later, O'Shea replicated the results in a double blind design.
At the beginning of the 1970s, sporting organizations, including the IOC and NCAA, declared the use of anabolic steroids unethical, but with no effective means of testing athletes, the issue remained academic.
Steroid cycle
A steroid cycle is the period in time where an individual is actively taking anabolic steroids. A cycle typically lasts 6–12 weeks.General population
It is difficult to determine what percent of the population have used anabolic steroids. Studies in the United States have shown anabolic steroid users tend to be mostly middle-class heterosexual men with a medianMedian
In probability theory and statistics, a median is described as the numerical value separating the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability distribution, from the lower half. The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from lowest value to...
age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes. They cite using the drugs for cosmetic purposes. Another study found that non-medical use of anabolic steroids among college students was at, or less than, 1%. According to a 2006 survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes. About 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multi-dose vials, though a 2007 study found sharing of needles was extremely uncommon
(less than 1%) among individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes. Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical anabolic steroid users had secondary college degrees and more had completed college and less had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general population. The same study found that individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population. Anabolic steroid users research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.
Anabolic steroid users tend to be disillusioned by the portrayal of anabolic steroids as deadly in the media and in politics. According to one study, anabolic steroid users also distrust their physicians, and in the sample, 56% had not disclosed their anabolic steroid use to their physicians. Another 2007 study showed that while 66% of individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical anabolic steroid use was lacking, and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side effects of anabolic steroid use. A 2006 study has showed that long-term anabolic steroid users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia or bigorexia is a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough. Those who suffer from muscle dysmorphia tend to hold delusions that they are "skinny" or "too small" but are often above average in musculature...
and also showed stronger endorsement of more traditional male roles.
Sports
Anabolic steroids have been used by athletes in many professional sports, including cricketCricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
, track and field
Track and field
Track and field is a sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for the competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area...
, weightlifting, bodybuilding
Bodybuilding
Bodybuilding is a form of body modification involving intensive muscle hypertrophy. An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder. In competitive and professional bodybuilding, bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of judges, who assign points based on their...
, shot put
Shot put
The shot put is a track and field event involving "putting" a heavy metal ball—the shot—as far as possible. It is common to use the term "shot put" to refer to both the shot itself and to the putting action....
, cycling
Cycling
Cycling, also called bicycling or biking, is the use of bicycles for transport, recreation, or for sport. Persons engaged in cycling are cyclists or bicyclists...
, baseball
Baseball
Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The aim is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot diamond...
, wrestling
Wrestling
Wrestling is a form of grappling type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. A wrestling bout is a physical competition, between two competitors or sparring partners, who attempt to gain and maintain a superior position...
, mixed martial arts
Mixed martial arts
Mixed Martial Arts is a full contact combat sport that allows the use of both striking and grappling techniques, both standing and on the ground, including boxing, wrestling, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, muay Thai, kickboxing, karate, judo and other styles. The roots of modern mixed martial arts can be...
, boxing
Boxing
Boxing, also called pugilism, is a combat sport in which two people fight each other using their fists. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of between one to three minute intervals called rounds...
, and football
Football
Football may refer to one of a number of team sports which all involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball with the foot to score a goal. The most popular of these sports worldwide is association football, more commonly known as just "football" or "soccer"...
. Such use is prohibited by many of the professional and amateur associations that organize these sports.
Anabolic steroid use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%. Male students used anabolic steroids more frequently than female students and, on average, those who participated in sports used steroids more often than those who did not.
Celebrity controversies
In 1992, NFLNational Football League
The National Football League is the highest level of professional American football in the United States, and is considered the top professional American football league in the world. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing...
football
American football
American football is a sport played between two teams of eleven with the objective of scoring points by advancing the ball into the opposing team's end zone. Known in the United States simply as football, it may also be referred to informally as gridiron football. The ball can be advanced by...
player Lyle Alzado
Lyle Alzado
Lyle Martin Alzado was a professional American football defensive lineman of the National Football League famous for his intense and intimidating style of play....
died from brain cancer, which he said was caused by his steroid use. Although steroids have been known to cause liver cancer, there is no published evidence that anabolic steroids cause either brain cancer or the specific type of T-cell lymphoma
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a cancer in the lymphatic cells of the immune system. Typically, lymphomas present as a solid tumor of lymphoid cells. Treatment might involve chemotherapy and in some cases radiotherapy and/or bone marrow transplantation, and can be curable depending on the histology, type, and stage...
that caused Alzado's death. However, Alzado also stated that he felt addicted to steroids and that he had become increasingly violent.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
Arnold Schwarzenegger
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger is an Austrian-American former professional bodybuilder, actor, businessman, investor, and politician. Schwarzenegger served as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 until 2011....
admitted to using anabolic steroids for many years during his bodybuilding career. In 1997, he underwent surgery to correct a heart defect. Some have assumed this was because of his use of anabolic steroids. Although the use of anabolic steroids can sometimes cause enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle, Schwarzenegger was born with a congenital
Congenital disorder
A congenital disorder, or congenital disease, is a condition existing at birth and often before birth, or that develops during the first month of life , regardless of causation...
genetic defect in which his heart had a bicuspid aortic valve
Bicuspid aortic valve
A bicuspid aortic valve is most commonly a congenital condition of the aortic valve where two of the aortic valvular leaflets fuse during development resulting in a valve that is bicuspid instead of the normal tricuspid configuration. Normally the only cardiac valve that is bicuspid is the mitral...
, a condition that rendered his aortic valve with two cusps instead of three, which can occasionally cause problems later in life.
Doping
The use of anabolic steroids is banned by all major sporting associations, including the International Olympic CommitteeInternational Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee is an international corporation based in Lausanne, Switzerland, created by Pierre de Coubertin on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president...
, Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball is the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, consisting of teams that play in the National League and the American League...
, the National Football League
National Football League
The National Football League is the highest level of professional American football in the United States, and is considered the top professional American football league in the world. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing...
, the National Basketball Association
National Basketball Association
The National Basketball Association is the pre-eminent men's professional basketball league in North America. It consists of thirty franchised member clubs, of which twenty-nine are located in the United States and one in Canada...
, the National Hockey League
National Hockey League
The National Hockey League is an unincorporated not-for-profit association which operates a major professional ice hockey league of 30 franchised member clubs, of which 7 are currently located in Canada and 23 in the United States...
, WWE
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. is an American publicly traded, privately controlled entertainment company dealing primarily in professional wrestling, with major revenue sources also coming from film, music, product licensing, and direct product sales...
, ICC
International Cricket Council
The International Cricket Council is the international governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.The...
, ITF
International Tennis Federation
The International Tennis Federation is the governing body of world tennis, made up of 205 national tennis associations.It was established as the International Lawn Tennis Federation by 12 national associations meeting at a conference in Paris, France on 1 March 1913...
, FIFA
FIFA
The Fédération Internationale de Football Association , commonly known by the acronym FIFA , is the international governing body of :association football, futsal and beach football. Its headquarters are located in Zurich, Switzerland, and its president is Sepp Blatter, who is in his fourth...
, FINA
Fina
Fina may refer to:*Fina, a character in the Skies of Arcadia video game*FINA, the International Swimming Federation*FINA, the North American Forum on Integration...
, UEFA
UEFA
The Union of European Football Associations , almost always referred to by its acronym UEFA is the administrative and controlling body for European association football, futsal and beach soccer....
, the European Athletic Association
European Athletic Association
The European Athletic Association is the European governing body for the sport of athletics.- History :In 1932, during a meeting of the International Amateur Athletic Federation in Los Angeles, a special committee was designated by the Council with the task of reviewing the conditions for the...
, and the Brazilian Football Confederation
Brazilian Football Confederation
The Brazilian Football Confederation is the governing body of football in Brazil. It was founded on June 8, 1914, as Confederação Brasileira de Desportos , meaning Brazilian Sports Confederation. Its first president was Álvaro Zamith. It organizes the Brazilian national competitions, like...
. Anabolic steroids are controlled substance
Controlled substance
A controlled substance is generally a drug or chemical whose manufacture, possession, or use are regulated by a government. This may include illegal drugs and prescription medications ....
s in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom
(UK), and the United States (U.S.). In some countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter drug
Over-the-counter drug
Over-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription...
s.
The Olympics
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games is a major international event featuring summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the world’s foremost sports competition where more than 200 nations participate...
, the National Basketball Association
National Basketball Association
The National Basketball Association is the pre-eminent men's professional basketball league in North America. It consists of thirty franchised member clubs, of which twenty-nine are located in the United States and one in Canada...
, the National Hockey League
National Hockey League
The National Hockey League is an unincorporated not-for-profit association which operates a major professional ice hockey league of 30 franchised member clubs, of which 7 are currently located in Canada and 23 in the United States...
, and the National Football League
National Football League
The National Football League is the highest level of professional American football in the United States, and is considered the top professional American football league in the world. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing...
also ban the use of anabolic steroids. The World Anti-Doping Agency
World Anti-Doping Agency
The World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
(WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports associations and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all anabolic steroids and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances. Spain passed an anti-doping law that created a national anti-doping agency. Italy passed a law in 2000 where penalties range up to three years in prison if an athlete has tested positive for banned substances. In 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin served as the second President of the Russian Federation and is the current Prime Minister of Russia, as well as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when...
signed into law ratification of the International Convention Against Doping in Sport, which would encourage cooperation with WADA. Many other countries have similar legislation prohibiting anabolic steroids in sports, including Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and Sweden.
Legal status and politics
The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. In the U.S., anabolic steroids are listed as Schedule III controlled substances under the Controlled Substances ActControlled Substances Act
The Controlled Substances Act was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. The CSA is the federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain...
, which makes the possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to seven years in prison. In Canada, anabolic steroids and their derivatives are part of the Controlled drugs and substances act and are Schedule IV substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription. However, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling anabolic steroids in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months. Importing or exporting anabolic steroids also carry similar penalties. Anabolic steroids are also illegal without prescription in Australia, Argentina, Brazil, and Portugal, and are listed as Schedule 4 Controlled Drug
Controlled Drug
The United Kingdom Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 aimed to control the possession and supply of numerous listed drugs and drug-like substances as a controlled substance. The act allowed and regulated the use of some Controlled Drugs by various classes of persons The United Kingdom Misuse of Drugs Act...
s in the United Kingdom. However, anabolic steroids are readily available without a prescription in some countries, such as Mexico and Thailand.
United States
The United States first considered classifying anabolic steroids as a controlled substance in the late 1980s after a controversy over Ben Johnson's victory at the 1988 Summer Olympics1988 Summer Olympics
The 1988 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIV Olympiad, were an all international multi-sport events celebrated from September 17 to October 2, 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. They were the second summer Olympic Games to be held in Asia and the first since the 1964 Summer Olympics...
in Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
. During deliberations, the American Medical Association
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association , founded in 1847 and incorporated in 1897, is the largest association of medical doctors and medical students in the United States.-Scope and operations:...
(AMA), Drug Enforcement Administration
Drug Enforcement Administration
The Drug Enforcement Administration is a federal law enforcement agency under the United States Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States...
(DEA), Food and Drug Administration
Food and Drug Administration
The Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments...
(FDA), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse
National Institute on Drug Abuse
The National Institute on Drug Abuse is a United States federal-government research institute whose mission is to "lead the Nation in bringing the power of science to bear on drug abuse and addiction."-History:...
(NIDA) all opposed listing anabolic steroids as controlled substances. These organizations argued that use of these drugs does not lead to the physical or psychological dependence required for such scheduling under the Controlled Substance Act. However, anabolic steroids were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990. The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after non-medical use of anabolic steroids was criminalized in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the products. Some brand names included Ciba, Searle, and Syntex. In the Controlled Substances Act, anabolic steroids are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than estrogen
Estrogen
Estrogens , oestrogens , or œstrogens, are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal...
s, progestin
Progestin
A progestin is a synthetic progestogen that has progestinic effects similar to progesterone. The two most common uses of progestins are for hormonal contraception , and to prevent endometrial hyperplasia from unopposed estrogen in hormone replacement therapy...
s, and corticosteroid
Corticosteroid
Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex. Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiologic systems such as stress response, immune response and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte...
s) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added prohormone
Prohormone
A prohormone is a substance that is a precursor to a hormone, usually having minimal hormonal effect by itself. The term has been used in medical science since the middle of the 20th century. The primary function of a prohormone is to enhance the strength of the hormone that already occurs in the...
s to the list of controlled substance
Controlled substance
A controlled substance is generally a drug or chemical whose manufacture, possession, or use are regulated by a government. This may include illegal drugs and prescription medications ....
s, with effect from January 20, 2005.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, anabolic steroids are classified as class C drugs for their illegal abuse potential, which puts them in the same class as benzodiazepines. In 2008, a study published in the LancetThe Lancet
The Lancet is a weekly peer-reviewed general medical journal. It is one of the world's best known, oldest, and most respected general medical journals...
suggested that anabolic steroids are less dangerous than most other illegal substances, and some legal ones.
Illegal trade
Smuggling
Smuggling is the clandestine transportation of goods or persons, such as out of a building, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations.There are various motivations to smuggle...
across international borders. Like most significant smuggling operations, organized crime
Organized crime
Organized crime or criminal organizations are transnational, national, or local groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly for monetary profit. Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist organizations, are...
is involved.
Growth hormone treatment
Growth hormone treatment refers to the use of growth hormone in medical treatment. Growth hormone is a peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth and cell reproduction. In the past, growth hormone was extracted from human pituitary glands. GH is now produced by...
. The companies exported raw products to Mexico, where the consumer products were packaged. The investigation, dubbed "Operation Gear Grinder," was the largest anabolic steroid operation in the United States, and involved China, Mexico, Canada, Australia, Germany, and Thailand, among other countries. The investigation also focused on online message boards where advice was given on how to use anabolic steroids. The DEA also intercepted thousands of e-mails in the course of the investigation. The DEA
Drug Enforcement Administration
The Drug Enforcement Administration is a federal law enforcement agency under the United States Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States...
has stated that the e-mails intercepted were compiled into a massive database of names which could lead to months or years of future arrests of steroid users.
Production
Anabolic steroids are produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small homemade laboratories. Common problems associated with illegal drug trades, such as chemical substitutions, cutting, and diluting, affect illegal anabolic steroids, so that when they reach the distribution level, the quality may be compromised and the drugs may be dangerous. In the 1990s, most U.S. producers such as Ciba, Searle and SyntexSyntex
Laboratorios Syntex SA was a pharmaceutical company formed in Mexico City in 1944 by Russell Marker to manufacture therapeutic steroids from the Mexican yam....
stopped making and marketing anabolic steroids within the U.S. However, in many other regions, particularly Eastern Europe, they are still mass produced. European anabolic steroids are the source of most medical grade anabolic steroids sold illegally in North America.
Anabolic steroids are still in wide use for veterinary purposes, and often contain the same components as those prepared for humans, but without the same quality control. These can also be dangerous, as they may have been produced and handled in cruder and less sterile environments.
Distribution
In the U.S., Canada, and Europe, illicit steroids are purchased just like any other illegal drug. Dealers are able to obtain the steroids from a number of sources. Illegal anabolic steroids are sometimes sold at gyms, competitions, and through the mail, but may also be obtained through pharmacists, veterinarians, and physicians. In addition, a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as anabolic steroids, particularly via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies. Individuals also produce fake steroids and attempt to sell them over the Internet, causing a wide variety of health concerns. In the U.S., black market importation continues from Mexico, Thailand, and other countries where steroids are not illegal.See also
- Performance-enhancing drugsPerformance-enhancing drugsPerformance-enhancing drugs are substances used by athletes to improve their performances in the sports in which they engage.- Types of performance-enhancing drugs :...
- Muscle dysmorphiaMuscle dysmorphiaMuscle dysmorphia or bigorexia is a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough. Those who suffer from muscle dysmorphia tend to hold delusions that they are "skinny" or "too small" but are often above average in musculature...
- Androgen replacement therapyAndrogen replacement therapyAndrogen replacement therapy is a hormone treatment often prescribed to counter the effects of male Hypogonadism. It is also prescribed to lessen the effects or delay the onset of normal male aging...