Emperor Renzong of Yuan China
Encyclopedia
Buyantu Khan also known as Emperor Renzong of Yuan (Chinese
: 元仁宗, April 9, 1285 – March 1, 1320), born Ayurbarwada, was the Emperor
of the Yuan Dynasty
, and is regarded as the eighth Great Khan
of the Mongols
in Mongolia.
Ayurbarwada was the first Yuan emperor who actively supported and promoted the mainstream Chinese culture
after the reign of Kublai. The emperor, who was mentored by Confucian academic Li Meng
, succeeded peacefully to the throne and reversed his older brother Khayisan's policies. More importantly, Ayurbarwada reinstituted the civil service examination system
for the Yuan Dynasty.
(r.1260-94). He had been tutored by the Confucian scholar Li Meng
, who strongly affected his future political attitudes since his early teens.
In 1305 Bulugan
Khatun
removed Ayurbarwada from the court and sent him to Honan as the prince of Huai-ning. However, his uncle Temur Khan died without an heir on 2 February 1307, because his son Tachu had died a year earlier before him.
Temür's widow Bulugan of the Bayaud tribe had kept away the Khunggirad-mothered brothers of Khayishan and Ayurbarwada and attempted to set up her favorite Muslim
Ananda, their uncle and the governor of Ningxia
. The Darkhan Harghasun, the right chancellor
of the government who became aware of Bulugan's plan, called Ayurbarwada and Li Meng back from Huaizhou to the capital Dadu. They successfully developed a strategy to imprison Ananda and Bulugan. Afterwards, Ayurbarwada welcomed his older brother Khayishan, who was still far away from Dadu, to succeed to the throne. After the latter's coronation, Ayurbarwada was appointed the Crown Prince
in June 1307. Brothers promised each other that their descendants would rule on relay.
scholars Chen Hao, Wang I, Wang Yueh, Chao Mengfu
, Wang Chieh, Chan Yaoho, Shang-ye, Yao sui, and Hsia ku; the artists Shang cheng and Wang Cheng-peng; Chagaan, a scholar from Balkh
and Haiya, the Uyghur
lyricist.
He was able to read and write Chinese and appreciate Chinese painting
s and calligraphy
in addition to his deep knowledge of Confucianism
and Chinese history. Strongly influenced by Confucian political ethics, he was naturally opposed to his brother's exploitative policies. Khayisan's partisans had accused Li Meng of having advised Ayurbarwada to keep the throne for himself; Li Meng left the court immediately after Khayisan's accession. Ayurbarwada spoke out in Li Meng's defence but accomplished nothing much in the end. His disagreement with his brother's high officials remained concealed until his own enthronement.
Khayishan died in January 1311. Unlike the succession struggle over Yuan throne in 1307, Ayurbarwada's succession to his elder brother Khayisan's throne in April 1311 was a peaceful and smooth transition of the Yuan imperial history. This was made possible by the fact that he was designated by Khayishan as the heir apparent in June 1307, in accordance with their earlier agreement, similar to Kublai Khan had done when grooming Zhenjin
to be his successor.
Ayurbarwada's accession kuriltai was composed of 14,000 princes, each of whom employed relays of from 700 to 1,000 horses. The feast lasted a week. Forty oxen and 4,000 sheep, besides a great number of animals were eaten daily. At the hour fixed by the astrologers, the new Emperor seated himself on his throne, his face turned towards the south, in the Karshi, which was hung with silk and brocade. The descendants of Genghis Khan
were on the right, and the descendants of Hasar on the left of the throne. The Khatuns were seated on stools. Ayurbarwada was saluted under the title of Buyantu.
. The bureaucracy was trimmed to the 1293 level and new high offices were reduced to the original status they had had in Kublai's reign. The various public building projects of Khayisan were halted. He made Li Meng and Chang Kuei grand councillors in addition to appointing Mongols and Semu
ren (a caste of assorted peoples from Central Asia and the west). The Office of Market Taxes, which was set up to supervise merchants, was abolished with the attempt at abolition by the Semuren.
The most prominent reform he made was the reintroduction of the imperial examination
system for public officials similar to the one in previous dynasties of China. The imperial examination system, though had repeated been debated during Kublai's reign, had not put into effect until this time. It was now based entirely on Neo-Confucianism
, which was thus established as the state philosophy of China for many centuries ever since. A race-based quotas were set for these examinations, allowing a certain number of both Mongol and Han Chinese to enter the government as civil officials. For example, starting in 1313 examinations were introduced for prospective officials - testing their knowledge on significant historical works - in 1315 300 appointments went to the court, with an extra quarter of the positions being given to non-Han Chinese people.
Codification of the law was another area in which Ayurbarwada's efforts to reform the Yuan Dynasty produced the desired results. In the same month that he was enthroned in 1311, he instructed the Secretariat to systematize the codes and regulations promulgated since the beginning of Kublai's reign. This compilation and editing was completed in 1316, though the process of reviewing the collection was not completely until 1323, under his son and successor Shidibala, who formally promulgated it under the title Da Yuan Tong Zhi (Chinese
: 大元通制, "the comprehensive institutions of the Great Yuan"). In many ways the new code reflected Mongolian customs and the institutional features peculiar to the Mongol Dynasty.
He believed that the Mongol elites and the Semuren had to learn from Confucian political philosophy and Chinese historical experience in order to govern the Yuan. During the reign of Ayurbarwada, a number of Chinese books and works were translated or published with Ayurbarwada's authorization. This can also reveal his fondness for Chinese culture and his and his officials' (especially the Mongols and Central Asians) desire to benefit from Confucian political wisdom and Chinese historical experience. Examples of these translated or published books and works include the Confucian classic Shang Shu (Chinese
: 尚書, "Book of history"), Daxue Yanyi (Chinese
: 大學衍義, "Extended meaning of the Great Learning"), Zhenguan Zhengyao (Chinese
: 貞觀政要, "Essentials of the government of the Zhenguan period"), and the Xiao Jing (Chinese
: 孝經, "Books of filial piety").
In the winter of 1311 Ayurbarwada ordered the abolition of the jarghuchi (judge
) of the princely establishments that was created by Ogedei Khan
(r.1229-41) and placed all Mongolian violators under the jurisdiction of chienbu while attempting to restrict separate appanage
judges. He restricted the position jarghuchi to judicial affairs and organized them under the Court of the Imperial Clan.
Early in his reign Ayurbarwada encouraged agriculture
to increase the state revenue. His senior councillor, Temuder, took drastic measures which included collecting salt
and iron monopoly taxes and the state monopoly over foreign trade under the Maritime Trade Supervisorate. Despite commercial ties with Europe
increased, Ayurbarwada's administration, led by Temuder, unsuccessfully attempted a new cadastral survey called Yanyou Jingli which involves a comprehensive land survey in 1314. If it had been implemented properly, this survey would have greatly increased the state revenue and helped a more effective tax structure. Ineffective implementation of the survey by corrupt officials caused widespread hardship and resentment. As a result, a serious revolt broke out in Jiangxi
in the fall of 1315. Although the revolt was suppressed within two months, it forced the government to abandon the survey program completely to relieve the situation.
Ayurbarwada also granted diploma (yarliq) to exempt the Franciscan
s from any taxation in 1314. The friars were still expected to pray for the Emperor's life and give their blessing on ceremonial occasions.
Temuder chipped away at the autonomy of the princely appanages and executed Confucian opponents. Since Temuder was viewed by Confucians as an "evil minister," opponents of fiscal centralization charged Temuder with corruption
; and Buyantu Khan had to dismiss him in 1317. Unwilling to oppose his mother Dagi (Targi), Ayurbarwada could not eliminate Temuder.
s of his accession, and told them to remember and send their tribute
at the proper time, and assured them that he would make punitive actions if they failed. Among the tributary princes to whom he notified his advent to the throne are named those of Champa
, Annam
, an island near Japan
, Malabar, and kingdoms on the borders of Yunnan
.
Muslim Ozbeg Khan mounted the throne of the Golden Horde
in 1312. He proscribed Buddhism
and Shamanism
among the Mongols in Russia
, reversing the spread of the Yuan culture. Yuan envoys seems to have backed Toqta
's son, a rival candidate, against Ozbeg.
Ayurbarwarda also maintained friendly relations with Ilkhan Oljeitu. The Chagatayid Khan Esen Buqa
in 1312 sent the Yuan border garrison envoys in an attempt to convince them to adjust their position. The negotiations, however, did not go well. Esen Buqa sent tributes to Ayurbarwada in 1312 and 1313, but the Yuan court's attempts to restrict trade between the two states kept tensions high. Esen Buqa attempted to gain the support of Ozbeg Khan without success. Ayurbarwada's emissary, Abishqa, to the Ilkhanate while travelling through Central Asia, revealed to a Chaghadayid commander that an alliance between the Yuan and the Ilkhanate had been created, and the allies forces were mobilizing to attack the khanate. Esen Buqa ordered Abishqa to be executed and decided to attack the Yuan. The Yuan armies repelled his troops twice in 1314.
After his failure, Esen Buqa warned Ozbeg Khan that the Khagan Ayurbarwada would replace him with another from the House of Jochi. This testimony was never corroborated with any evidence. Ozbeg was suggested not to believe it by one of his vizirs and he therefore refused to help Esen Buqa.
Oljeitu drove out the Qaraunas of Dawud Khoja, son of Qutlugh Khwaja
from Afghanistan
. Esen buqa dispatched his brother Kebek
with a large force to attack Khorasan
. Kebek and Yasa'ur
defeated Oljeitu's army at the Murgab River
and advanced to Herat
. But they were recalled, for the Chagatai Khanate
was attacked by Ayurbarwada's force under the Kipchak commander Chongur. Around this time Yasa'ur defected to Öljeitü and engaged in battle with Kebek's troops. The Yuan army crushed Esen Buqa's resistance and plundered his winter quarters on the Issyk Kul
as well as his summer residence in Talas
. The disaster was completed when prince Tore Temur deserted to the Yuan.
After Esen Buqa's death in 1318, his brother Kebek
mitigated the situation with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate. He enjoyed peaceful relations with the Great Khan despite Ayurbarwada's reestablishment of nominal authority in Uighurstan.
In 1326 Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan court. From 1339 he received annually 24,000 ding in Yuan paper currency from the Jochid appanages in China.
His death created two decades of political turmoil. The Khunggirat faction under Temuder and Dagi became even more powerful at the court. After the assassination of Shidibala in 1323, none of his descendants ruled the Empire.
Standard Mandarin
Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
: 元仁宗, April 9, 1285 – March 1, 1320), born Ayurbarwada, was the Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
of the Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
, and is regarded as the eighth Great Khan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
of the Mongols
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
in Mongolia.
Ayurbarwada was the first Yuan emperor who actively supported and promoted the mainstream Chinese culture
Culture of China
Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest and most complex. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces...
after the reign of Kublai. The emperor, who was mentored by Confucian academic Li Meng
Li Meng
Li Meng was a general serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Dong Zhuo died by his own adoptive son Lü Bu in an assassination plot by Wang Yun, he went on to serve Wang Yun for a short time.Later that same year , Dong Zhuo's loyalists led...
, succeeded peacefully to the throne and reversed his older brother Khayisan's policies. More importantly, Ayurbarwada reinstituted the civil service examination system
Imperial examination
The Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
for the Yuan Dynasty.
Struggle for succession
Ayurbarwada was the second son of Darmabala and Dagi (Targi) of the Khunggirat, and a great-grandson of Kublai KhanKublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
(r.1260-94). He had been tutored by the Confucian scholar Li Meng
Li Meng
Li Meng was a general serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Dong Zhuo died by his own adoptive son Lü Bu in an assassination plot by Wang Yun, he went on to serve Wang Yun for a short time.Later that same year , Dong Zhuo's loyalists led...
, who strongly affected his future political attitudes since his early teens.
In 1305 Bulugan
Bulugan
Dowager Empress Khanum Bulugan was a Mongolian political leader and Empress of the Yuan Dynasty that ruled Mongolia, Tibet, Korea and China. She was born as Princess Bulukhan of the Baya'ud tribe. Her husband Great Khan Temur, ruled from 1294 to 1307....
Khatun
Khatun
Khatun is a female title of nobility and alternative to male "khan" prominently used in the First Turkic Empire and in the subsequent Mongol Empire...
removed Ayurbarwada from the court and sent him to Honan as the prince of Huai-ning. However, his uncle Temur Khan died without an heir on 2 February 1307, because his son Tachu had died a year earlier before him.
Temür's widow Bulugan of the Bayaud tribe had kept away the Khunggirad-mothered brothers of Khayishan and Ayurbarwada and attempted to set up her favorite Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
Ananda, their uncle and the governor of Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
. The Darkhan Harghasun, the right chancellor
Chancellor of China
The Chancellor , variously translated as Prime Minister, Chancellor of State, Premier or Chief Councillor, was a generic name given to the highest-ranking official in the imperial government in ancient China...
of the government who became aware of Bulugan's plan, called Ayurbarwada and Li Meng back from Huaizhou to the capital Dadu. They successfully developed a strategy to imprison Ananda and Bulugan. Afterwards, Ayurbarwada welcomed his older brother Khayishan, who was still far away from Dadu, to succeed to the throne. After the latter's coronation, Ayurbarwada was appointed the Crown Prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
in June 1307. Brothers promised each other that their descendants would rule on relay.
Early career under Khayisan Kulug Khan and enthronement
Ayurbarwada was made head of the top central administrative organs. He had surrounded himself with the ChineseChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
scholars Chen Hao, Wang I, Wang Yueh, Chao Mengfu
Zhao Mengfu
Zhao Mengfu courtesy name Ziang , pseudonyms Songxue , Oubo , and Shuijing-gong Dao-ren , was a prince and descendant of the Song Dynasty, and a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty.He was recommended by the Censor-in-chief Cheng Jufu to pay an audience...
, Wang Chieh, Chan Yaoho, Shang-ye, Yao sui, and Hsia ku; the artists Shang cheng and Wang Cheng-peng; Chagaan, a scholar from Balkh
Balkh
Balkh , was an ancient city and centre of Zoroastrianism in what is now northern Afghanistan. Today it is a small town in the province of Balkh, about 20 kilometers northwest of the provincial capital, Mazar-e Sharif, and some south of the Amu Darya. It was one of the major cities of Khorasan...
and Haiya, the Uyghur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
lyricist.
He was able to read and write Chinese and appreciate Chinese painting
Chinese painting
Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. The earliest paintings were not representational but ornamental; they consisted of patterns or designs rather than pictures. Early pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots, or animals...
s and calligraphy
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is a type of visual art. It is often called the art of fancy lettering . A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious and skillful manner"...
in addition to his deep knowledge of Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and Chinese history. Strongly influenced by Confucian political ethics, he was naturally opposed to his brother's exploitative policies. Khayisan's partisans had accused Li Meng of having advised Ayurbarwada to keep the throne for himself; Li Meng left the court immediately after Khayisan's accession. Ayurbarwada spoke out in Li Meng's defence but accomplished nothing much in the end. His disagreement with his brother's high officials remained concealed until his own enthronement.
Khayishan died in January 1311. Unlike the succession struggle over Yuan throne in 1307, Ayurbarwada's succession to his elder brother Khayisan's throne in April 1311 was a peaceful and smooth transition of the Yuan imperial history. This was made possible by the fact that he was designated by Khayishan as the heir apparent in June 1307, in accordance with their earlier agreement, similar to Kublai Khan had done when grooming Zhenjin
Zhenjin
Zhenjin was the second son of Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty. He was designated as the Crown Prince by Kublai Khan in 1273, and became the head of Zhongshusheng .The North Chinese Buddhist monk Haiyun gave him the name, Zhenjin , when he was born in 1243...
to be his successor.
Ayurbarwada's accession kuriltai was composed of 14,000 princes, each of whom employed relays of from 700 to 1,000 horses. The feast lasted a week. Forty oxen and 4,000 sheep, besides a great number of animals were eaten daily. At the hour fixed by the astrologers, the new Emperor seated himself on his throne, his face turned towards the south, in the Karshi, which was hung with silk and brocade. The descendants of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
were on the right, and the descendants of Hasar on the left of the throne. The Khatuns were seated on stools. Ayurbarwada was saluted under the title of Buyantu.
Reformation
Ayurbarwada was highlighted for his reform efforts based on Confucianism principle for the Yuan government, though these reforms were made at the displeasure of some Mongol nobility. As soon as he ascended to the throne, he disbanded of the Department of State Affairs set up during Khayishan's reign, which resulted in the execution of 5 high-ranking officials. He also abolished the Chinta paper notes and coins; and restored the Chungtung and Chihyuan notes as the only official currencyCurrency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
. The bureaucracy was trimmed to the 1293 level and new high offices were reduced to the original status they had had in Kublai's reign. The various public building projects of Khayisan were halted. He made Li Meng and Chang Kuei grand councillors in addition to appointing Mongols and Semu
Semu
Semu is the name of a caste established in China under the Yuan Dynasty. Contrary to popular belief, the term "Semu" did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" in contrast with black-eyed Mongol Yuan people...
ren (a caste of assorted peoples from Central Asia and the west). The Office of Market Taxes, which was set up to supervise merchants, was abolished with the attempt at abolition by the Semuren.
The most prominent reform he made was the reintroduction of the imperial examination
Imperial examination
The Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
system for public officials similar to the one in previous dynasties of China. The imperial examination system, though had repeated been debated during Kublai's reign, had not put into effect until this time. It was now based entirely on Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
, which was thus established as the state philosophy of China for many centuries ever since. A race-based quotas were set for these examinations, allowing a certain number of both Mongol and Han Chinese to enter the government as civil officials. For example, starting in 1313 examinations were introduced for prospective officials - testing their knowledge on significant historical works - in 1315 300 appointments went to the court, with an extra quarter of the positions being given to non-Han Chinese people.
Codification of the law was another area in which Ayurbarwada's efforts to reform the Yuan Dynasty produced the desired results. In the same month that he was enthroned in 1311, he instructed the Secretariat to systematize the codes and regulations promulgated since the beginning of Kublai's reign. This compilation and editing was completed in 1316, though the process of reviewing the collection was not completely until 1323, under his son and successor Shidibala, who formally promulgated it under the title Da Yuan Tong Zhi (Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 大元通制, "the comprehensive institutions of the Great Yuan"). In many ways the new code reflected Mongolian customs and the institutional features peculiar to the Mongol Dynasty.
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 尚書, "Book of history"), Daxue Yanyi (Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 大學衍義, "Extended meaning of the Great Learning"), Zhenguan Zhengyao (Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 貞觀政要, "Essentials of the government of the Zhenguan period"), and the Xiao Jing (Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 孝經, "Books of filial piety").
In the winter of 1311 Ayurbarwada ordered the abolition of the jarghuchi (judge
Judge
A judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and in an open...
) of the princely establishments that was created by Ogedei Khan
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire by succeeding his father...
(r.1229-41) and placed all Mongolian violators under the jurisdiction of chienbu while attempting to restrict separate appanage
Appanage
An apanage or appanage or is the grant of an estate, titles, offices, or other things of value to the younger male children of a sovereign, who would otherwise have no inheritance under the system of primogeniture...
judges. He restricted the position jarghuchi to judicial affairs and organized them under the Court of the Imperial Clan.
Early in his reign Ayurbarwada encouraged agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
to increase the state revenue. His senior councillor, Temuder, took drastic measures which included collecting salt
Salt commission
The Salt Commission was an organization in Tang China used to raise tax revenue from the state monopoly of the salt trade.-History:Following the An Lushan Rebellion revenues from the land tax began to fall. The equal-field system that sustained the land tax was undermined by the aristocracy and...
and iron monopoly taxes and the state monopoly over foreign trade under the Maritime Trade Supervisorate. Despite commercial ties with Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
increased, Ayurbarwada's administration, led by Temuder, unsuccessfully attempted a new cadastral survey called Yanyou Jingli which involves a comprehensive land survey in 1314. If it had been implemented properly, this survey would have greatly increased the state revenue and helped a more effective tax structure. Ineffective implementation of the survey by corrupt officials caused widespread hardship and resentment. As a result, a serious revolt broke out in Jiangxi
Jiangxi
' is a southern province in the People's Republic of China. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south, it shares a border with Anhui to the north, Zhejiang to the northeast, Fujian to the east, Guangdong to the south, Hunan to the west, and Hubei to...
in the fall of 1315. Although the revolt was suppressed within two months, it forced the government to abandon the survey program completely to relieve the situation.
Ayurbarwada also granted diploma (yarliq) to exempt the Franciscan
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
s from any taxation in 1314. The friars were still expected to pray for the Emperor's life and give their blessing on ceremonial occasions.
Temuder chipped away at the autonomy of the princely appanages and executed Confucian opponents. Since Temuder was viewed by Confucians as an "evil minister," opponents of fiscal centralization charged Temuder with corruption
Political corruption
Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by...
; and Buyantu Khan had to dismiss him in 1317. Unwilling to oppose his mother Dagi (Targi), Ayurbarwada could not eliminate Temuder.
Mongol Empire
Ayurbarwada continued his ancestors' imperialistic policies. He reminded the vassal stateVassal state
A vassal state is any state that is subordinate to another. The vassal in these cases is the ruler, rather than the state itself. Being a vassal most commonly implies providing military assistance to the dominant state when requested to do so; it sometimes implies paying tribute, but a state which...
s of his accession, and told them to remember and send their tribute
Tribute
A tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
at the proper time, and assured them that he would make punitive actions if they failed. Among the tributary princes to whom he notified his advent to the throne are named those of Champa
Champa
The kingdom of Champa was an Indianized kingdom that controlled what is now southern and central Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832.The Cham people are remnants...
, Annam
Annam (Chinese Province)
Annam or Jiaozhi was the southernmost province of the Chinese Empire. It is now part of present-day Vietnam...
, an island near Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, Malabar, and kingdoms on the borders of Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
.
Muslim Ozbeg Khan mounted the throne of the Golden Horde
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
in 1312. He proscribed Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and Shamanism
Shamanism
Shamanism is an anthropological term referencing a range of beliefs and practices regarding communication with the spiritual world. To quote Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy." Shamanism encompasses the...
among the Mongols in Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, reversing the spread of the Yuan culture. Yuan envoys seems to have backed Toqta
Toqta
Tokhta was a khan of the Golden Horde, son of Mengu-Timur and great grandson of Batu Khan.His name "Tokhtokh" means "hold/holding" in the Mongolian language....
's son, a rival candidate, against Ozbeg.
Ayurbarwarda also maintained friendly relations with Ilkhan Oljeitu. The Chagatayid Khan Esen Buqa
Esen Buqa I
Esen Buqa I was Khan of the Chagatai Khanate . He was the son of Duwa.In 1309 Esen Buqa's brother Kebek ordered a meeting to determine the future of the khanate following his seizure of power...
in 1312 sent the Yuan border garrison envoys in an attempt to convince them to adjust their position. The negotiations, however, did not go well. Esen Buqa sent tributes to Ayurbarwada in 1312 and 1313, but the Yuan court's attempts to restrict trade between the two states kept tensions high. Esen Buqa attempted to gain the support of Ozbeg Khan without success. Ayurbarwada's emissary, Abishqa, to the Ilkhanate while travelling through Central Asia, revealed to a Chaghadayid commander that an alliance between the Yuan and the Ilkhanate had been created, and the allies forces were mobilizing to attack the khanate. Esen Buqa ordered Abishqa to be executed and decided to attack the Yuan. The Yuan armies repelled his troops twice in 1314.
After his failure, Esen Buqa warned Ozbeg Khan that the Khagan Ayurbarwada would replace him with another from the House of Jochi. This testimony was never corroborated with any evidence. Ozbeg was suggested not to believe it by one of his vizirs and he therefore refused to help Esen Buqa.
Oljeitu drove out the Qaraunas of Dawud Khoja, son of Qutlugh Khwaja
Qutlugh Khwaja
Qutlugh Khwaja was a son of Duwa, the Mongolian khan of Chagatai Khanate in the Mongol Empire. He became a chief of the Qara'unas in Afghanistan after Abdullah was recalled by the Khan to Central Asia in around 1298-1299...
from Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
. Esen buqa dispatched his brother Kebek
Kebek
Kebek was khan of the Chagatai Khanate from 1309 until 1310, and again from c. 1318 until his death.-First Reign:Kebek was the son of Duwa, who was khan from 1282 until 1307...
with a large force to attack Khorasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
. Kebek and Yasa'ur
Yasa'ur
Yasa'ur was a Chagatai prince who launched a revolt against the Ilkhan Abu Sa'id. He was the son of Chübei, and a great-great-grandson of Chagatai Khan.Yasa'ur had originally resided within the Chagatai ulus...
defeated Oljeitu's army at the Murgab River
Murgab River
Murghāb , or Morghāb, also transliterated from Tajiki Мурғоб and Russian Мургаб as Murghob and Murgab, is the name of two distinct rivers in Central Asia:...
and advanced to Herat
Herat
Herāt is the capital of Herat province in Afghanistan. It is the third largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of about 397,456 as of 2006. It is situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan...
. But they were recalled, for the Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
was attacked by Ayurbarwada's force under the Kipchak commander Chongur. Around this time Yasa'ur defected to Öljeitü and engaged in battle with Kebek's troops. The Yuan army crushed Esen Buqa's resistance and plundered his winter quarters on the Issyk Kul
Issyk Kul
Issyk Kul is an endorheic lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains in eastern Kyrgyzstan. It is the tenth largest lake in the world by volume and the second largest saline lake after the Caspian Sea. Although it is surrounded by snow-capped peaks, it never freezes; hence its name, which means "hot...
as well as his summer residence in Talas
Taraz
Taraz , is a city and a center of the Jambyl Province in Kazakhstan. It is located in the south of Kazakhstan, near the border with Kyrgyzstan, on the Talas River...
. The disaster was completed when prince Tore Temur deserted to the Yuan.
After Esen Buqa's death in 1318, his brother Kebek
Kebek
Kebek was khan of the Chagatai Khanate from 1309 until 1310, and again from c. 1318 until his death.-First Reign:Kebek was the son of Duwa, who was khan from 1282 until 1307...
mitigated the situation with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate. He enjoyed peaceful relations with the Great Khan despite Ayurbarwada's reestablishment of nominal authority in Uighurstan.
In 1326 Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan court. From 1339 he received annually 24,000 ding in Yuan paper currency from the Jochid appanages in China.
Aftermath
Ayurbarwada died on 1 March 1320. After Khayishan died Ayurbarwada lost his promise later in his reign by making his own son Shidibala the new Crown Prince. Therefore, his son succeeded him instead of one of Khayisan's sons.His death created two decades of political turmoil. The Khunggirat faction under Temuder and Dagi became even more powerful at the court. After the assassination of Shidibala in 1323, none of his descendants ruled the Empire.