Council of Bourges
Encyclopedia
The Council of Bourges was a Catholic council convened in November 1225 in Bourges
, France
; it was the second largest church assembly held in the West up to that time, exceeded in the numbers of prelates that attended only by the Fourth Lateran Council. Summoned by the cardinal-legate
Romanus Bonaventura, it was attended by 112 archbishops and bishops, more than 500 abbots, many deans and archdeacons, and over 100 representatives of cathedral chapters.
. That Crusade was organized to eliminate Catharism, which the Roman Catholic Church
viewed as the most threateningly successful heresy
Christianity
had faced since Arianism
in the fourth and fifth centuries. The first order of business was to adjudicate the claims to the County of Toulouse of Amaury VI of Montfort
against the prominent Cathar
Count Raymond of Toulouse. Unsurprisingly, the Catholic Amaury was judged the rightful Count and, like his father, Raymond was excommunicated.
The assembled churchmen authorized a tax on their annual incomes, the "Albigensian tenth", to support the Crusade. Permanent reforms intended to fund the papacy in perpetuity, foundered.
and its new Aristotelian teachings
. In January 1226, Romanus granted to Louis VIII
a tithe
of all clerical incomes within his lands for a period of five years. But the seeds had been sown. Upon the king's death the following 8 November, the chapters of four French dioceses— Reims, Sens, Rouen and Tours— withheld future payments of the tithe on the grounds that they had not assented to it. Romanus responded that he had granted the tax on behalf of their proctor
s and the overwhelming majority of the council assembled. The chapters maintained that they had sent nuncio
s to attend, but without the power to assent to taxation on their behalf. When taken before Innocent, the papal decision went against the chapters, as the power was alleged to lie in Romanus' legatine authority
. But the precedent set at Bourges had far-reaching reverberations in Italy and Spain. "By 1268 Roman formulas of the proctorial mandate were adapted for use of knights of the shire
in Parliament; and soon the kings of England and France, following the precedent established by the lawyers and by cathedral chapters in provincial councils, began to express the Roman principle of due process in court, 'Quod omnes tangit' etc., as an integral part of the rationale of the representation of individual and corporate rights before the king and his court and council in assembly."
Less than successful, however, was the attempt of Pope Honorius III
to secure permanent papal funding, by establishing a papal prebend in every chapter, of which the yearly income, together with a portion of the bishop's income, would be reserved for the upkeep of the papal curia. A letter extending this request to England
was unanimously rejected in May 1226, at a mixed council of laity and clergy convened at Canterbury
jointly by the King
and the Archbishop
.
Bishops also successfully defended their rights over abbey
s within their jurisdiction from the papal claim that abbot
s were responsible directly to the pope
.
The Council's modern historian, Richard Kay, asserts several lasting effects of the Council. Among the most prominent was the earliest expression of the political tenet that would come to be identified as "no taxation without representation
", a provision that had recently been incorporated into canon law
. Over a thousand of those who attended were representing chapter
s of cathedrals and abbeys, and Kay characterizes the effect of the Council as the fountainhead of representational democracy, which, though it failed within the Church with the failure of the Conciliar movement in the fifteenth century, has succeeded in the European secular sphere from the seventeenth century onwards. The papacy was left to fund itself with stop-gap measures, which included the sale of indulgences
, which would play a divisive role in the future.
Bourges
Bourges is a city in central France on the Yèvre river. It is the capital of the department of Cher and also was the capital of the former province of Berry.-History:...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
; it was the second largest church assembly held in the West up to that time, exceeded in the numbers of prelates that attended only by the Fourth Lateran Council. Summoned by the cardinal-legate
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
Romanus Bonaventura, it was attended by 112 archbishops and bishops, more than 500 abbots, many deans and archdeacons, and over 100 representatives of cathedral chapters.
Order of business
The council was called during the Albigensian CrusadeAlbigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc...
. That Crusade was organized to eliminate Catharism, which the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
viewed as the most threateningly successful heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
had faced since Arianism
Arianism
Arianism is the theological teaching attributed to Arius , a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt, concerning the relationship of the entities of the Trinity and the precise nature of the Son of God as being a subordinate entity to God the Father...
in the fourth and fifth centuries. The first order of business was to adjudicate the claims to the County of Toulouse of Amaury VI of Montfort
Amaury VI of Montfort
Amaury VI de Montfort was the son of the elder Simon de Montfort and Alice of Montmorency, and the brother of the younger Simon de Montfort.He participated in the Albigensian Crusade under his father's command...
against the prominent Cathar
Cathar
Catharism was a name given to a Christian religious sect with dualistic and gnostic elements that appeared in the Languedoc region of France and other parts of Europe in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries...
Count Raymond of Toulouse. Unsurprisingly, the Catholic Amaury was judged the rightful Count and, like his father, Raymond was excommunicated.
The assembled churchmen authorized a tax on their annual incomes, the "Albigensian tenth", to support the Crusade. Permanent reforms intended to fund the papacy in perpetuity, foundered.
Outcome and legacy
Through skillful maneuvering on the part of the legate the tax was passed, and a public opportunity was taken advantage of, to humiliate the University of ParisUniversity of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
and its new Aristotelian teachings
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. The works of Aristotle were initially defended by the members of the Peripatetic school, and, later on, by the Neoplatonists, who produced many commentaries on Aristotle's writings...
. In January 1226, Romanus granted to Louis VIII
Louis VIII of France
Louis VIII the Lion reigned as King of France from 1223 to 1226. He was a member of the House of Capet. Louis VIII was born in Paris, France, the son of Philip II Augustus and Isabelle of Hainaut. He was also Count of Artois, inheriting the county from his mother, from 1190–1226...
a tithe
Tithe
A tithe is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash, cheques, or stocks, whereas historically tithes were required and paid in kind, such as agricultural products...
of all clerical incomes within his lands for a period of five years. But the seeds had been sown. Upon the king's death the following 8 November, the chapters of four French dioceses— Reims, Sens, Rouen and Tours— withheld future payments of the tithe on the grounds that they had not assented to it. Romanus responded that he had granted the tax on behalf of their proctor
Proctor
Proctor, a variant of the word procurator, is a person who takes charge of, or acts for, another. The word proctor is frequently used to describe someone who oversees an exam or dormitory.The title is used in England in three principal senses:...
s and the overwhelming majority of the council assembled. The chapters maintained that they had sent nuncio
Nuncio
Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church...
s to attend, but without the power to assent to taxation on their behalf. When taken before Innocent, the papal decision went against the chapters, as the power was alleged to lie in Romanus' legatine authority
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
. But the precedent set at Bourges had far-reaching reverberations in Italy and Spain. "By 1268 Roman formulas of the proctorial mandate were adapted for use of knights of the shire
Knights of the Shire
From the creation of the Parliament of England in mediaeval times until 1826 each county of England and Wales sent two Knights of the Shire as members of Parliament to represent the interests of the county, when the number of knights from Yorkshire was increased to four...
in Parliament; and soon the kings of England and France, following the precedent established by the lawyers and by cathedral chapters in provincial councils, began to express the Roman principle of due process in court, 'Quod omnes tangit' etc., as an integral part of the rationale of the representation of individual and corporate rights before the king and his court and council in assembly."
Less than successful, however, was the attempt of Pope Honorius III
Pope Honorius III
Pope Honorius III , previously known as Cencio Savelli, was Pope from 1216 to 1227.-Early work:He was born in Rome as son of Aimerico...
to secure permanent papal funding, by establishing a papal prebend in every chapter, of which the yearly income, together with a portion of the bishop's income, would be reserved for the upkeep of the papal curia. A letter extending this request to England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
was unanimously rejected in May 1226, at a mixed council of laity and clergy convened at Canterbury
Canterbury
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a district of Kent in South East England. It lies on the River Stour....
jointly by the King
Henry III of England
Henry III was the son and successor of John as King of England, reigning for 56 years from 1216 until his death. His contemporaries knew him as Henry of Winchester. He was the first child king in England since the reign of Æthelred the Unready...
and the Archbishop
Stephen Langton
Stephen Langton was Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and his death in 1228 and was a central figure in the dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III, which ultimately led to the issuing of Magna Carta in 1215...
.
Bishops also successfully defended their rights over abbey
Abbey
An abbey is a Catholic monastery or convent, under the authority of an Abbot or an Abbess, who serves as the spiritual father or mother of the community.The term can also refer to an establishment which has long ceased to function as an abbey,...
s within their jurisdiction from the papal claim that abbot
Abbot
The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery...
s were responsible directly to the pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
.
The Council's modern historian, Richard Kay, asserts several lasting effects of the Council. Among the most prominent was the earliest expression of the political tenet that would come to be identified as "no taxation without representation
No taxation without representation
"No taxation without representation" is a slogan originating during the 1750s and 1760s that summarized a primary grievance of the British colonists in the Thirteen Colonies, which was one of the major causes of the American Revolution...
", a provision that had recently been incorporated into canon law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
. Over a thousand of those who attended were representing chapter
Chapter (religion)
Chapter designates certain corporate ecclesiastical bodies in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Nordic Lutheran churches....
s of cathedrals and abbeys, and Kay characterizes the effect of the Council as the fountainhead of representational democracy, which, though it failed within the Church with the failure of the Conciliar movement in the fifteenth century, has succeeded in the European secular sphere from the seventeenth century onwards. The papacy was left to fund itself with stop-gap measures, which included the sale of indulgences
Indulgence
In Catholic theology, an indulgence is the full or partial remission of temporal punishment due for sins which have already been forgiven. The indulgence is granted by the Catholic Church after the sinner has confessed and received absolution...
, which would play a divisive role in the future.