Conflict escalation
Encyclopedia
Conflict escalation describes the escalation
of a conflict to a more destructive, confrontational, painful, or otherwise "less comfortable" level; in particular, it is concerned with how persons or forces can be controlled or subdued in conflict. In systems theory
, this kind of behaviour is modeled as positive feedback
.
Conflict escalation has a tactical role in military conflict, and is often formalized with explicit rules of engagement
. Highly successful military tactics
exploit a particular form of conflict esclation; for example, controlling an opponents reaction time allows the tactician to pursue or trap his opponent. Napoleon, Heinz Guderian
, and Sun Tzu
advocated this approach; however, the latter elaborated it in a more abstract form, and additionally maintained that military strategy
was about minimizing escalation, and diplomacy
about eliminating it.
The subject responds to and obeys verbal commands. He refrains from close combat.
The subject resists verbal commands but complies to commands immediately upon contact controls. He refrains from close combat.
Initially, the subject physically resists commands, but he can be made to comply by compliance techniques; these include come-along holds, soft-handed stunning blows, and techniques inducing pain by joint manipulation and pressure points.
The unarmed subject physically attacks his opponent. He can be controlled by certain defensive tactics, including blocks, strikes, kicks, enhanced pain compliance procedures, impact weapon blocks and blows
.
The subject has a weapon and will likely kill or injure someone unless controlled. This is only possible by lethal force, which possibly requires firearms or weapons.
to avoid such conflict in future, and instead engaging in peacemaking
. Much nonviolent conflict resolution, however, involves conflict escalation in the form of protest
s, strike
s, or other direct action
s.
Mohandas Gandhi, a major theorist of nonviolence
, used satyagraha
to demonstrate that:
With this method of escalation, Gandhi avoided technological escalation
and demonstrated to those in power that:
observed that people in crisis would often push the twelve leverage points
towards escalation in the first stage, and then reduce escalation when the resistance had weakened and it was impossible to maintain the status quo.
Escalation
Escalation is the phenomenon of something getting more intense step by step, for example a quarrel, or, notably, a war between states possessing weapons of mass destruction. Compare to escalator, a device that lifts something to a higher level...
of a conflict to a more destructive, confrontational, painful, or otherwise "less comfortable" level; in particular, it is concerned with how persons or forces can be controlled or subdued in conflict. In systems theory
Systems theory
Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research...
, this kind of behaviour is modeled as positive feedback
Positive feedback
Positive feedback is a process in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation. That is, A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A. In contrast, a system that responds to a perturbation in a way that reduces its effect is...
.
Conflict escalation has a tactical role in military conflict, and is often formalized with explicit rules of engagement
Rules of engagement
Rules of Engagement refers to those responses that are permitted in the employment of military personnel during operations or in the course of their duties. These rules of engagement are determined by the legal framework within which these duties are being carried out...
. Highly successful military tactics
Military tactics
Military tactics, the science and art of organizing an army or an air force, are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. Changes in philosophy and technology over time have been reflected in changes to military tactics. In...
exploit a particular form of conflict esclation; for example, controlling an opponents reaction time allows the tactician to pursue or trap his opponent. Napoleon, Heinz Guderian
Heinz Guderian
Heinz Wilhelm Guderian was a German general during World War II. He was a pioneer in the development of armored warfare, and was the leading proponent of tanks and mechanization in the Wehrmacht . Germany's panzer forces were raised and organized under his direction as Chief of Mobile Forces...
, and Sun Tzu
Sun Tzu
Sun Wu , style name Changqing , better known as Sun Tzu or Sunzi , was an ancient Chinese military general, strategist and philosopher who is traditionally believed, and who is most likely, to have authored The Art of War, an influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy...
advocated this approach; however, the latter elaborated it in a more abstract form, and additionally maintained that military strategy
Military strategy
Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
was about minimizing escalation, and diplomacy
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states...
about eliminating it.
Continuum of Force
The United States Marine Corps' "Continuum of Force" (found in MCRP 3-02B) documents the stages of Conflict escalation in combat for a typical subject. They are:- Level 1: Compliant (Cooperative).
The subject responds to and obeys verbal commands. He refrains from close combat.
- Level 2: Resistant (Passive).
The subject resists verbal commands but complies to commands immediately upon contact controls. He refrains from close combat.
- Level 3: Resistant (Active).
Initially, the subject physically resists commands, but he can be made to comply by compliance techniques; these include come-along holds, soft-handed stunning blows, and techniques inducing pain by joint manipulation and pressure points.
- Level 4: Assaultive (Bodily Harm).
The unarmed subject physically attacks his opponent. He can be controlled by certain defensive tactics, including blocks, strikes, kicks, enhanced pain compliance procedures, impact weapon blocks and blows
Strike (attack)
A strike is an attack with an inanimate object, such as a weapon, or with a part of the human body intended to cause an effect upon an opponent or to simply cause harm to an opponent. There are many different varieties of strikes...
.
- Level 5: Assaultive (Lethal Force).
The subject has a weapon and will likely kill or injure someone unless controlled. This is only possible by lethal force, which possibly requires firearms or weapons.
Preventing conflict escalation
A major focus of peace and conflict theory is concerned with curbing conflict escalation or creating a mindsetMindset
In decision theory and general systems theory, a mindset is a set of assumptions, methods or notations held by one or more people or groups of people which is so established that it creates a powerful incentive within these people or groups to continue to adopt or accept prior behaviors, choices,...
to avoid such conflict in future, and instead engaging in peacemaking
Peacemaking
Peacemaking is a form of conflict resolution which focuses on establishing equal power relationships that will be robust enough to forestall future conflict, and establishing some means of agreeing on ethical decisions within a community that has previously had conflict. In order to do so there...
. Much nonviolent conflict resolution, however, involves conflict escalation in the form of protest
Protest
A protest is an expression of objection, by words or by actions, to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take many different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations...
s, strike
Strike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
s, or other direct action
Direct action
Direct action is activity undertaken by individuals, groups, or governments to achieve political, economic, or social goals outside of normal social/political channels. This can include nonviolent and violent activities which target persons, groups, or property deemed offensive to the direct action...
s.
Mohandas Gandhi, a major theorist of nonviolence
Nonviolence
Nonviolence has two meanings. It can refer, first, to a general philosophy of abstention from violence because of moral or religious principle It can refer to the behaviour of people using nonviolent action Nonviolence has two (closely related) meanings. (1) It can refer, first, to a general...
, used satyagraha
Satyagraha
Satyagraha , loosely translated as "insistence on truth satya agraha soul force" or "truth force" is a particular philosophy and practice within the broader overall category generally known as nonviolent resistance or civil resistance. The term "satyagraha" was conceived and developed by Mahatma...
to demonstrate that:
- Peacefully controlling a group of people with a common cause was possible.
- One could accomplish objectives through solidarity without capitulating to violent attack.
- His method ensured mutual support.
- It was possible to desist from retributive justice.
- It was not ultimately desirable to inflict punishmentPunishmentPunishment is the authoritative imposition of something negative or unpleasant on a person or animal in response to behavior deemed wrong by an individual or group....
, even when grievously wronged.
With this method of escalation, Gandhi avoided technological escalation
Technological escalation
Technological escalation describes the situation where two parties in competition tend to employ continual technological improvements in their attempt to defeat each other. Technology is defined here as a creative invention, either in the form of an object or a methodology...
and demonstrated to those in power that:
- The group was held together by its own discipline, and not by any kind of authority using violence.
- Authority could surrender without being subjected to violence.
- Authority could depart safely.
- Authority could devolve without obstacles, for the dissentDissentDissent is a sentiment or philosophy of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or an entity...
was well enough organized to constitute an effective political partyPolitical partyA political party is a political organization that typically seeks to influence government policy, usually by nominating their own candidates and trying to seat them in political office. Parties participate in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions...
Systems view
Gandhi himself did not elaborate all these observations; Carol Moore, a later theorist, examined and described Gandhi's methods from the perspective of systems theory. Jay Forrester and Donella MeadowsDonella Meadows
Donella H. "Dana" Meadows was a pioneering American environmental scientist, teacher and writer. She is best known as lead author of the influential book The Limits to Growth, which made headlines around the world.- Life :Born in Elgin, Illinois, Meadows was educated in science, receiving a B.A...
observed that people in crisis would often push the twelve leverage points
Twelve leverage points
The twelve leverage points to intervene in a system were proposed by Donella Meadows, a scientist and system analyst focused on environmental limits to economic growth...
towards escalation in the first stage, and then reduce escalation when the resistance had weakened and it was impossible to maintain the status quo.