Circassian Nationalism
Encyclopedia
Circassian nationalism is the desire among Circassians to establish (or rather, revive) an independent Circassian state with the contours of the former Circassia
before it was conquered by Russia. It is often classified as national revival because many themes involve the repatriation of diaspora Circassians and the revitalization of the Adyghe language
.
, and later Scythian and Sarmatian groups, followed by Turkic groups including importantly the Khazars
and being a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire
. Nonetheless, the Circassians generally maintained a high level of autonomy. Due to their Black Sea coast location, owning the important ports of Anapa
, Sochi
and Tuapse
, they were heavily involved in trade, and many early European slaves were Circassians (additionally, the Mamluks of Egypt and the Ottoman Janissaries had a strong ethnic Circassian component).
Ruling themselves, Circassians have interchangeably used feudal systems, tribal-based confederacies and monarchies to rule their lands, often incorporating a mix of two or all three. Circassia was generally organized by tribe, with each tribe having a set territory, roughly functioning as greater than a province, but less than completely autonomous, more on the level of a US state (of course, the level of autonomy varied between tribes and time). Not all of the tribes within the confederation were ethnic Circassian: at different times, Nogais
, Ossetians
, Balkars
, Karachays
, Ingush
, and even Chechens participated as members of the confederation. In the 19th century, three such tribes (first one, then seeing its example, two more very close in time to each other) overthrew their feudal governments in favor of direct democracy
(which some intellectuals, such as Tony Wood, argue the default government for the Chechens, at that time a neighboring polity); however, this experiment was cut short by the conquering of Circassia by Tsarist Russia and the end of independence in favor of the rule of colonial Russia.
.
The Italian and Greek presence in port towns had an effect on both the dialects of the said Italians/Greeks and the Circassians around the area (as well as the Abkhaz
ians, if they are to be considered Circassian). The Circassian language(s) were widely regarded as unique and beautiful by 19th century linguists (today, they are often linked to extinct languages in Anatolia).
Racial scientists, after discovering an intimate similarity between the skull shapes of Caucasians (primarily judged by Circassians, Georgians and Chechens, the most numerous groups), went to declare that Europeans, North Africans, Middle Eastern peoples and Caucasians were of a common race, termed "Caucasian", or later, as it is known today, as "Caucasoid". Scientific racism went far to emphasize the superior beauty of the Caucasian people, above all the Circassians, referring to them as "how God intended the Caucasian race to be" and that the Caucasus was the "first outpost of the superior race". According to Johann Freidrich Blumenbach, a chief advocate of the Circassophilic theory of Circassians as the prime and most superior examples of Caucasoid race (usually followed then by Georgians in second place), the Circassians were the closest to God's original model of humanity, and thus "the purest and most beautiful whites were the Circassians".
Meanwhile, beauty products got names in the US and Western Europe such as "Circassian Soap", "Circassian Curl", "Circassian Lotion",
"Circassian Hair Dye", "Circassian Eye Water", etc. The Circassian is also known to be, somewhat correctly, tall and thin. This admiration developed for the Circassians, especially their physique, but also (later) their culture, which in some ways resembled that of Medieval Europe (including its feudal system), especially in music (which to some degree, is still the case today).
Though Circassophilia already was a fad in the West, it took a suddenly different form during the Crimean War, when the alliance with the Circassians of Britain led to a more understanding, even sympathetic view of them: rather than a simple obsession with their physical characteristics; expressions of solidarity with the "beautiful, honorable Circassians" became a sort of war rally. Britain glumly observed the Muhajirs
(Caucasian exiles) miserably, only to forget that the Circassians ever existed decades later once their country had been absorbed by Russia. This had a profound affect on modern nationalism, as noted by Charles King.
The earliest date of Russian expansion into Circassian land was in the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible, who notably married a Kabardin wife Maria Temryukovna, the daughter of Muslim
prince Temryuk of Kabardia to seal a contract of alliance with the Kabardins, a subdivision of the Circassians. After Ivan's death, however, Russian interest in the Caucasus subsided and they remained largely removed from its affairs; with other states in between Russia and Circassia, notably the Crimean Khanate
and the Nogai Horde
.
In the 18th century, however, Russia regained its imperial ambitions in the region, and expanded steadily southward, with the eventual goal of obtaining the riches of the Middle East and Persia, using the Caucasus as a connection to the region. The first incursion of the Russian military into Circassia occurred in 1763, as part of the Russo-Persian War.
Eventually, due to a perceived need for Circassian ports and a view that an independent Circassia would impede their plans to extend into the Middle East (plans which were never achieved), Russia soon moved to annex Circassia. Tensions culminated in the devastating Russian-Circassian War
, which in its later stages was eclipsed by the Crimean War. Despite the fact that a similar war was going on at the other side of the Caucasus (Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan fighting against Russia to preserve their states' existence), as well as the attempts of some (ranging from Circassian princes to Imam Shamil to Britain) to connect the two struggles, connections between the Circassians and their allies with their Eastern Caucasian counterparts were quashed by an Ossetian alliance with Russia.
Hostilities peaked in the 19th century, and led directly to the Russian-Circassian War
, in which the Circassians, along with the Abkhaz
, Ubykhs
, Abazins
, Nogais
, Chechens
and in the later stages the Ingush
(who started out as allies of Russia), as well as a number of Turkic tribes, fought the Russians to maintain their independence. This conflict became entangled with the ensuing Crimean War
, and at various times the Ottomans
gave small assistance to the Circassian side. Additionally, the Circassians succeeded in securing the sympathies of London
, and in the later stages of the Crimean War, the British supplied arms and intelligence to the Circassians, who reciprocated by busying the Russians and returning with intelligence of their own. However, this was not enough to save the Circassians from the oncoming defeat and Russian domination. Russia finally subdued the Circassians, tribe after tribe, with the Ubykhs, Abazins, Abkhaz and Balkars
being last. While some tribes accepted Russian rule after being firmly conquered, others continued insurgency, even though Circassia as a whole had surrendered.
Russia soon proceeded to order the Muhajirs. Approximately 1-1.5 million Circassians were killed, and upon order of the Tsar, and most of the Muslim population was deported (i.e., all except Ossete Muslims and Kabardins; the modern Circassians and Abazins either managed to escape or, as is the case with most, returned; at the time after the deportation, as Charles King notes in his books, travelers who searched throughout the area for Circassians could not find any left except the Kabardins), mainly to the Ottoman Empire, causing the exile of another 1.5 million Circassians and others. This effectively annihilated (or deported) 90% of the nation. Circassians were viewed as tools by the Ottoman government, and settled in restive ares of nationalist yearnings- Armenia, the Arab regions and the Balkans. Many more Circassians were killed by the policies of the Balkan states, primarily Serbia and Bulgaria, which became independent at that time. Still more Circassians were forcefully assimilated by nationalist Muslim states (Turkey, Syria, Iraq, etc.) who looked upon non-Turk/Arab ethnicity as a foreign presence and a threat.
period under Mikhail Gorbachev
.
Modern Circassian nationalism is the ideology of several activist groups in the so-called "Circassian belt" of autonomous republics in Russia, as well as in areas where the Circassian diaspora is (Turkey, Israel, etc.), and in Abkhazia, which has ethnic ties to Circassia.
The widely criticized 1999 election in Karachay-Cherkessia
, where the Cherkes candidate was beaten causing huge crowds of Abazins
and Circassians in the capital to lead protests, became a source of martyrdom.
Both Adyge Khase and the International Circassian Organization have declared that there aim is "to protect the rights of the Circassians wherever they live and to facilitate the return of the substantial portion of the Circassian Diaspora to the Circassian inhabited lands of the Northwest Caucasus to change the demographic structure" (back to what it was before ethnic cleansing occurred)
Attempting to achieve recognition of the "Circassian genocide" is also a very prominent movement among Circassians, though it is not necessarily purely nationalist. Another major movement, often tied into this, but more blatantly nationalistic, is the movement to recreate a "historical Circassia", the core of Circassian nationalism, with its historical territories, and make Circassian one group on the census. There is a feeling among some Circassians that the notion that Kabardins, Adyghe
, Cherkes and Shapsugs
(all four are separate on the Russian census) are different nations is a Kremlin strategy designed to divide the Circassian nation. Many politicians even warn that if this is not removed, that "dismemberment will ultimately lead to the death of the Circassian nation". Many Circassian nationalists (moderates, such as Cherkesov) do not advocate withdrawing from the Russian federation, that a unified Circassia albeit still within Russia is good enough. Nonetheless, most assert that this unified Circassia within Russia should have one official language, Adyghe
.
The movement to split Karachai-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria has won itself the official support of many Circassians (especially in Karachai-Cherkessia, where Karachai and Russians dominate government posts) as well as the influential Circassian organization "Adyge Khase".
After the crisis involving the ethnic identity of the man who first scaled Mt.Elbrus, a group of young Circassians, led by Aslan Zhukov, reconquered the mountain in a symbolic move. Aslan Zhukov (also 36-year-old founder of Adyge Djegu, another major Circassian nationalist organization) was then murdered on March 14, 2010 by a gunshot in a dark alley. His death spurred another round of rioting among Circassians, who variously attribute his death to the government of the republic, the Russian government, the Russians in the republic or the Karachay, some combination, or all four. The head of the republic said that his death should not be painted in ethnic terms but this only resulted in the addition of him to the list of possible culprits from the Circassian point of view.
The perceived favoritism of Moscow towards the Cossacks is also a major bone of contention amongst Circassians.
An organization calling itself "Union of Slavs", led by Nina Konovaleva and Boris Karatayev, was created in 1991 to counter the activities of Circassian organizations such as Adyge Khase, and prevent Circassians from removing Russians from positions of prestige and power, as well as to "protect Russians/Cossacks from Circassian control of the land". In 1991, Union of Slavs in Adygeya actively opposed the establishment of Adygeya as separate from Krasnodar Krai as an ethnic republic within Russia, stating that Circassians were only 22% of the populace and as such, it was not fair to the other 78%. The Union of Slavs has called the increasing autonomy of Adygeya and the activism in Karachai-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria part of a "dangerous conspiracy" to create a "Greater Circassia", achieve demographic dominance by repatriating Diaspora Circassians, and then marginalize or even expel the Russian residents ("colonists", in Circassian ideology). It has called for the liquidation of the three Circassian republics (two of which are also shared with Karachays
or Balkars
) due to "discrimination of Russians".
There has also been an swift escalation of tension between the Circassians and the non-Circassians in the three republics (Russians, Karachai and Balkars). While the Russians in Adygea demand the abolition of Adygea, the Karachai have taken to a strategy of keeping Circassians out of office- Jamestown reports that "Over the last seven months, the Karachai majority in the KCHR parliament have repeatedly banned the Circassian candidate Vyacheslav Derev from taking a position in the Russian Federation Council" (the time of reporting was November 2009). Furthermore, for the last 31 years, no Circassian has held the highest post in the republic, as the Soviet and then Russian officials always appointed Karachai.
There is a movement, highly popular among both Circassians and Karachai (but not Russians, obviously), to divide the republic into monoethnic units of Cherkessia and Karacheia, perhaps to prepare these units for a merger.
There have also been numerous clashes between Karachai and Circassian historians over various historical issues. One of the most scandalous cases occurred when Karachai historians claimed that the conqueror of Mt. Elbrus (Khashar Chilar in Circassian, Hilar Hakirov in Karachai) was a Karachai rather than a Circassian from Nal'chik (going against the testimony of the members of the early 19th century expedition to the top of the mountain which he led). On November 20, a poster hailing the "great Karachai hero" Hakilov in Cherkessk
was burned and destroyed by unknown perpetrators.
What actually started the protests by Circassians in Karachaevo-Cherkessia was a news article by the local newspaper Express-Post. It denied the fact that the Circassian village of Besleney had saved dozens of Jewish children from the Nazis, prompting a joint Jewish-Circassian contingent to protest the existence of the report as well as an outcry in Circassian-operated independent media sources. Express-Post apologized later, but it was these protests that were planned to be spread to the capital (and canceled) to protest the general "deep oppression" of Circassians.
It is important to note that unlike in Adygea (22% Circassian as of 2003) and Karachai-Cherkessia (11-16%, depending on if the Abazins are considered Circassian, in 2003), Kabardino-Balkaria has a clear Circassian (of the Kabardin subdivision) majority (at 55%). However, "after the parliament of KBR ratified the bill ‘On land and territory’ earlier this month, each Balkar living in KBR in turn has received 10.6 hectares of the land while only 1.6 hectares belong to each Circassian" noted Jelyabi Kalmykov, and this soon became a rallying cry at the protest. Ruslan Keshev, the leader of the Circassian Congress in Kabardino-Balkaria declared that "If the government does not listen to us we are ready for radical actions. This is the only homeland we have."
), and to a lesser extent, the Circassians as well. Paul Goble noted that the recognition of South Ossetia, in addition to enraging the Chechens and Ingush, also radicalized many Circassians against Russia, because of the mass of double standards.
There is a large amount of cooperation between Circassian activists and Abkhazia as well: Circassians poured into Abkhazia to assist them in their war for independence against Georgia, and most websites dedicated to independence of Circassia or promotion of Abkhazia are linked to their cross-Caucasus counterpart. For example, AbkhazWorld and CircassianWorld both have each other as top affiliate, both using the same design style for their sites and in the "About Us" section of both sites, both make note that they are, in fact, part of the same project.
According to Western Circassophile Colarusso, some Circassians consider Abkhazia a possible addition to Circassia if the Abkhaz themselves wish to join.
The Circassians have set up a number of organizations with the explicit goal of encouraging return of their "brothers". The most notable of these is the ICA (International Circassian Association)'s "Repatriation Committee", which has branches in several countries.
Russia has a double digit official repatriation quota for Circassians viewed by many (Colarusso, Henze, etc.) as being an attempt to prevent the Circassians, who are viewed as a threat, from returning.
On August 9, 2009, Adygea officially attempted to overrule the Russian immigration quota for Circassians by putting forth its own de facto quota, which was drastically higher, allowing many more Circassians to return to their homeland. According to Western Circassophile John Colarusso, the movement to allow and encourage Circassian return to their homeland (hence, changing the demographics in a way that is advantageous for the Circassians and disadvantageous for the Russians) is one of the major objectives and rallying points of the modern movement.
Russia has also unintentionally (in addition to the single-digit quota for Circassians, which is defined as including all four of the census groups as well as the Abazins) set up a number of barriers. According to an essay by Cicek Chek, these include:
Additionally, many Circassians in the diaspora opt not to return for additional reasons of inconvenience, losing job and economic well-being, losing contact with friends, etc.
There have been numerous instances of murders of returnee Circassians by ethnic Russians living in both Krasnodar and Adygea.
It has been reported that the fact that Russia's repatriation policies have shown heavy favoritism to ethnic Russians and have granted very few if any Circassians the right to return is another major grievance, especially considering that the return of Circassians to Russia would aid Russia in its attempts to overcome its crisis of declining population.
abroad has begun experiencing a cultural reawakening. Contacts are being established with their homeland, but also, more importantly, there are now many institutions being founded to strengthen the Circassian identity within the diaspora. For example, in 2005, the Circassian Education Foundation (website here: http://www.circassianfoundation.org), a scholarship fund for Circassians, was founded in Wayne, New Jersey, USA. It is, in fact, a creation of a mother-organization, the Circassian Benevolent Organization. It has since given scholarship funds to Circassians across the US. The organization (Circassian Education Foundation) has also worked on a project of making a free online Circassian-American English dictionary (available here: http://www.circassianfoundation.org/dictionary which will then, it hopes, be used by Circassians for their language so they can, in turn pass it on to their children as well as revitalize it.
The Circassian diaspora in the Middle East also are undergoing a cultural reawakening, largely due to the reestablishment of contacts with their homeland, however, unlike that in Western countries (primarily the US, Germany, The Netherlands, Austria and Israel), it is often paired with tension between Circassians and the ethnic majority of the country, Arabs or Turks. The governments of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Libya have all forced assimilation of Circassians and suppressed their culture in the past and suppressed various attempts at past renaissances. Nonetheless, in the past few years, in many of these countries, the diaspora has become much more aware of their identity and active. "Nart-TV", a program broadcasting from Adygeya, about Circassian identity, history and life, is now broadcasting in many Middle Eastern countries, including Israel and Jordan.
On August 8, 2010, a university opened in Amman, Jordan, specifically for Circassians to preserve Circassian heritage and culture, with classes in the Circassian language and on Circassian culture and history in addition to practical topics.
As a result of tensions, politics in all three republics are often highly ethnic-based, and in Kabardino-Balkaria
and Karachay-Cherkessia
, the dispute is often three-way (Russians vs. Circassians and Abazins vs. Karachay in Karachay-Cherkessia; Russians vs. Kabardins vs. Balkars in Kabardino-Balkaria).
While Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachai-Cherkessia's non-Circassian leaders have come under fire from Circassian nationalists for "oppression", ethnic Adyge leader Aslan Dzharimov
of Adygea styled himself as a moderate who would balance the centralizing urges of Moscow and the Russians against the autonomism/separatism of the Adyge. Although originally popular on this premise, he soon ended up angering both sides, and Adyge Khase denounced him as a collaborationist and "traitor to the Circassian nation".
Russians may often view the three republics as integral parts of Russia, especially since Russians are an overwhelming majority of the resident population in Adygea.
The Russian government has taken to either trying to silence the nationalism or trying to gain control over individual Circassian activist groups. Analysts, even Russians such as Sergei Markedonov have voiced concern over what they perceive as the continuing "radicalization" of Circassian youth due to the Kremlin's attempts to control them, and are disappointed that Medvedev continues this policy.
In addition, Russia officially keeps a very low immigration quota for Circassians - as low as 50 (though the only republics Circassians would likely to immigrate to are those in former Circassia). The government of Adygea, however, has seized the opportunity to override this quota for their own territory with their own version: 1400 per year for Adygea alone (rather than 50 per year for all of Russia). After Russian protest at this action, Adygea said that they were in fact acting on Yeltsin's own words – for republics to "take as much sovereignty as they can swallow".
Russia has criticized articles in the constitutions of the three republics discussing heritage, language and the like and labeling them as "separatist", recommending they be edited.
Some websites, such as CircassianWorld have published various articles of stories from Circassian activists about them (the activists) being intimidated by "FSB veterans", as the activists claim they identified them as.
Russia has denounced several of the assertions that the Adygei have of their history (in addition to Ukrainian accounts of Holodomor and Chechen and other accounts of the perceivedly genocidal deportation to Siberia) - including the genocide - as false and "fabrications", and as attempts to throw tar on Russia's reputation.
The Cossacks, even more than normal Russians, are highly antagonistic towards Circassian nationalism, as it is towards their aims, which include the revival of traditional Cossack paramilitary forces, already underway in Russia (see Cossacks and related pages). Circassians believe that will be a tool, as the Cossacks were in the past, for oppression of ethnic minorities and silencing their demands.
Many journalists, both Circassian and Russian (for example, Natalya Rykova), have stated that Russian "skinheads" are intrinsically tied to the ethnic tensions in the "Circassian" republics, whose opinions they perceive as being advanced not in the least by the Russian media. According to the above-cited article from Window-On-Eurasia, "Polls show that many Russians believe the problem of hate crimes can be solved either by restricting immigration or by toughening law enforcement", and that "...Confronted with this challenge, the Russian government has largely failed to do what is necessary to contain it. It "liquidated" a special ministry for nationality affairs. It closed the federal program for promoting tolerance and countering extremism. And it fails to provide sufficient funds and staff to other ministries to deal with the challenge." Furthermore, Putin's current policy for internal division of the Russian Federation is not at all pleasing for advocates of self-determination: it advocates "enlargement of regions of Russia". Sergei Mironov stated on March 30, 2002 that "89 federation subjects is too much, but larger regional units are easier to manage" and that the goal was to merge them into 7 federal districts. Gradually, over time, ethnic republics were to be abolished to accomplish this goal of integration.
Many people, ranging from Circassian activist coordinators to Akhmed Zakayev
, Ichkerian head of government-in-exile to the liberal journalist Fatima Tlisova have speculated that Russia has tried to use a policy of divide and rule throughout the North Caucasus (citing examples of the Circassian vs. Karachai/Balkar rivalry, Ossetian-Ingush conflict, Georgian-Abkhaz conflict
, Georgian-Ossetian conflict
, interethnic rivalries in Dagestan and even the Nagorno-Karabakh War
, which Russia also insists on mediating), creating "unnatural conflicts" that can only be solved by Kremlin intervention, keeping Caucasian peoples both weak and dependent on Russia to mediate their conflicts. Sufian Jemukhov and Alexei Bekshokov, leaders of the "Circassian Sports Initiative" stated that the conflict "has the potential to blow up the whole Caucasus into a bloody mess with the mass civilian casualties and therefore keep the Circassians from opposing the Sochi Winter Olympics...Moscow plays the conflict scenario when the participants do not have the ability to solve the conflict, but the conflict is absolutely manageable and can be easily solved by its rulers from the Kremlin."
of Circassian Genocide (as claimed by Circassian activists). As a result, it has become a rallying point to the Circassian activist organizations.
A few years later, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and Adygea sent appeals to the Duma, asking it “to reconsider the situation and to issue the needed apology.”
In the later years of the 2000-2010 decade, the movement to secure recognition for the Circassian genocide, largely taking a leaf out of the book of the Armenians has gained in momentum and popularity. Reasons for this include the location of the Sochi Olympics, US recognition of the Armenian genocide (prompting a bill on the Circassian genocide in New Jersey, where most Circassians in the US live) and the repeated insistence by Russians that the Georgians committed "genocide" against the Abkhaz and Ossetes.
In October 2006, the Circassian organizations operating in Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and several other countries with well-sized diasporas sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with a request to recognize the genocide against the Circassian people. There has been no action taken so far.
Circassians have attempted to attract global media attention to the Circassian Genocide and its relation to the city of Sochi (where the Olympics will be held in 2014) by holding mass protests in Vancouver, Istanbul and New York during the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.
On March 20, 2010, a Circassian Genocide Congress was held in the Georgian capitol of Tbilisi, funded in part by the Circassian members of the Western political analysis center, the Jamestown Federation
. .
The congress passed a resolution, urging Georgia to become the first UN-recognized State to recognize the Circassian Genocide.In May 2011, Georgia followed through and recognized the acts as a genocide. Soon after, the Chechen separatist government-in-exile announced that it commended Georgia's decision, and advocated pan-Caucasian solidarity, and Circassians, Georgians, Chechens and other Caucasian diaspora in European countries staged demonstrations to show their support. The Georgian flag was seen flying in Nalchik in appreciation for the Georgian recognition, the capital of Kabardino-Balkaria, which had been a bastion of anti-Georgian sentiment before the recognition.
Circassia
Circassia was an independent mountainous country located in the Caucasus region of Eurasia and was the largest and most important country in the Caucasus. Circassia was located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea...
before it was conquered by Russia. It is often classified as national revival because many themes involve the repatriation of diaspora Circassians and the revitalization of the Adyghe language
Adyghe language
Adyghe language , also known as West Circassian , is one of the two official languages of the Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation, the other being Russian. It is spoken by various tribes of the Adyghe people: Abzekh, Adamey, Bzhedugh; Hatukuay, Kemirgoy, Makhosh; Natekuay, Shapsigh; Zhane,...
.
Circassia and the Circassians before the Russian invasion
The Circassians were known to inhabit their homeland since antiquity. They formed many states throughout time that were known to the outside world, occasionally falling under brief control of the RomansRoman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, and later Scythian and Sarmatian groups, followed by Turkic groups including importantly the Khazars
Khazars
The Khazars were semi-nomadic Turkic people who established one of the largest polities of medieval Eurasia, with the capital of Atil and territory comprising much of modern-day European Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the northern Caucasus , parts of...
and being a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. Nonetheless, the Circassians generally maintained a high level of autonomy. Due to their Black Sea coast location, owning the important ports of Anapa
Anapa
Anapa is a town in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, located on the northern coast of the Black Sea near the Sea of Azov. It was originally a seaport for the Natkhuay tribe of the Adyghe people. Population: The town boasts a number of sanatoria and hotels...
, Sochi
Sochi
Sochi is a city in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, situated just north of Russia's border with the de facto independent republic of Abkhazia, on the Black Sea coast. Greater Sochi sprawls for along the shores of the Black Sea near the Caucasus Mountains...
and Tuapse
Tuapse
Tuapse is a town in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, situated on the northeast shore of the Black Sea, south of Gelendzhik and north of Sochi. It serves as the administrative center of Tuapsinsky District, although administratively it is separate from it...
, they were heavily involved in trade, and many early European slaves were Circassians (additionally, the Mamluks of Egypt and the Ottoman Janissaries had a strong ethnic Circassian component).
Ruling themselves, Circassians have interchangeably used feudal systems, tribal-based confederacies and monarchies to rule their lands, often incorporating a mix of two or all three. Circassia was generally organized by tribe, with each tribe having a set territory, roughly functioning as greater than a province, but less than completely autonomous, more on the level of a US state (of course, the level of autonomy varied between tribes and time). Not all of the tribes within the confederation were ethnic Circassian: at different times, Nogais
Nogais
The Nogai people are a Turkic ethnic group in Southern Russia: northern Dagestan and Stavropol Krai, as well as in Karachay-Cherkessia and the Astrakhan Oblast; undefined number live in Chechnya...
, Ossetians
Ossetians
The Ossetians are an Iranic ethnic group of the Caucasus Mountains, eponymous of the region known as Ossetia.They speak Ossetic, an Iranian language of the Eastern branch, with most also fluent in Russian as a second language....
, Balkars
Balkars
The Balkars are a Turkic people of the Caucasus region, one of the titular populations of Kabardino-Balkaria. They are possibly Bulgars or are descended from them...
, Karachays
Karachays
The Karachays are Turkic speaking people of the North Caucasus, mostly situated in the Russian Karachay-Cherkess Republic.-History:The Karachays are a Turkic speaking people descending from the Kipchaks and probably the Cumans, with some admixture of the medieval Alans and native Caucasians; their...
, Ingush
Ingush
Ingush may refer to:* The Ingush language* The Ingush people, an ethnic group of the North Caucasus...
, and even Chechens participated as members of the confederation. In the 19th century, three such tribes (first one, then seeing its example, two more very close in time to each other) overthrew their feudal governments in favor of direct democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
(which some intellectuals, such as Tony Wood, argue the default government for the Chechens, at that time a neighboring polity); however, this experiment was cut short by the conquering of Circassia by Tsarist Russia and the end of independence in favor of the rule of colonial Russia.
Circassophilia in the West
During and after the Enlightenment, Western European cultures showed much interest in the Circassians, specifically their physical appearance, language and culture, portraying the men as especially courageous (a legend that became especially popular in the court of London during the Crimean War when they were allies with Circassia). Circassians were often thought of as being especially beautiful, having curly black hair, light eyes and pale white skin (generally somewhat close to their actual appearance), giving rise to the phenomenon of Circassian BeautiesCircassian beauties
Circassian beauties is a term used to refer to an idealized image of the women of the Circassian people of the Northern Caucasus. A fairly extensive literary history suggests that Circassian women were thought to be unusually beautiful, spirited and elegant, and as such were desirable as concubines...
.
The Italian and Greek presence in port towns had an effect on both the dialects of the said Italians/Greeks and the Circassians around the area (as well as the Abkhaz
Abkhaz
Abkhaz and Abkhazian may refer to:* Something of, from, or related to Abkhazia, a de facto independent region with partial recognition as a sovereign state, otherwise recognized as part of Georgia...
ians, if they are to be considered Circassian). The Circassian language(s) were widely regarded as unique and beautiful by 19th century linguists (today, they are often linked to extinct languages in Anatolia).
Racial scientists, after discovering an intimate similarity between the skull shapes of Caucasians (primarily judged by Circassians, Georgians and Chechens, the most numerous groups), went to declare that Europeans, North Africans, Middle Eastern peoples and Caucasians were of a common race, termed "Caucasian", or later, as it is known today, as "Caucasoid". Scientific racism went far to emphasize the superior beauty of the Caucasian people, above all the Circassians, referring to them as "how God intended the Caucasian race to be" and that the Caucasus was the "first outpost of the superior race". According to Johann Freidrich Blumenbach, a chief advocate of the Circassophilic theory of Circassians as the prime and most superior examples of Caucasoid race (usually followed then by Georgians in second place), the Circassians were the closest to God's original model of humanity, and thus "the purest and most beautiful whites were the Circassians".
...It is no exaggeration to say that for several decades in the middle of the 19th century "Circassia" became a household in many parts of Europe and North America. Correspondents from major newspapers found their way to Circassia or gleaned information from foreign consuls and merchants in Trebizond and Constantinople. The "Circassian question", the political status of the northwestern highlands of the Caucusus, was debated in parliaments and gentlemen's clubs.
Meanwhile, beauty products got names in the US and Western Europe such as "Circassian Soap", "Circassian Curl", "Circassian Lotion",
"Circassian Hair Dye", "Circassian Eye Water", etc. The Circassian is also known to be, somewhat correctly, tall and thin. This admiration developed for the Circassians, especially their physique, but also (later) their culture, which in some ways resembled that of Medieval Europe (including its feudal system), especially in music (which to some degree, is still the case today).
Though Circassophilia already was a fad in the West, it took a suddenly different form during the Crimean War, when the alliance with the Circassians of Britain led to a more understanding, even sympathetic view of them: rather than a simple obsession with their physical characteristics; expressions of solidarity with the "beautiful, honorable Circassians" became a sort of war rally. Britain glumly observed the Muhajirs
Muhajir (Caucasus)
Circassians, the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Caucasus were cleansed from their homeland at the end of the Caucasian War by victorious Russia, which by its manner of suppression of the Caucasus directed at the Crimean Tartars and Circassians can be credited with "inventing the strategy of...
(Caucasian exiles) miserably, only to forget that the Circassians ever existed decades later once their country had been absorbed by Russia. This had a profound affect on modern nationalism, as noted by Charles King.
Russian invasion, conflict and Muhajirism
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
prince Temryuk of Kabardia to seal a contract of alliance with the Kabardins, a subdivision of the Circassians. After Ivan's death, however, Russian interest in the Caucasus subsided and they remained largely removed from its affairs; with other states in between Russia and Circassia, notably the Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea , was a state ruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was . Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
and the Nogai Horde
Nogai Horde
The Nogai Horde was a confederation of about eighteen Turkic and Mongol tribes that occupied the Pontic-Caspian steppe from about 1500 until they were pushed west by the Kalmyks and south by the Russians in the 17th century. The Mongol tribe called the Manghits constituted a core of the Horde...
.
In the 18th century, however, Russia regained its imperial ambitions in the region, and expanded steadily southward, with the eventual goal of obtaining the riches of the Middle East and Persia, using the Caucasus as a connection to the region. The first incursion of the Russian military into Circassia occurred in 1763, as part of the Russo-Persian War.
Eventually, due to a perceived need for Circassian ports and a view that an independent Circassia would impede their plans to extend into the Middle East (plans which were never achieved), Russia soon moved to annex Circassia. Tensions culminated in the devastating Russian-Circassian War
Russian-Circassian War
The Russian–Circassian War refers to a series of battles and wars in Circassia, the northwestern part of the Caucasus, which were part of the Russian Empire's conquest of the Caucasus lasting approximately 150 years, starting under the reign of Tsar Peter the Great and being completed in 1864...
, which in its later stages was eclipsed by the Crimean War. Despite the fact that a similar war was going on at the other side of the Caucasus (Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan fighting against Russia to preserve their states' existence), as well as the attempts of some (ranging from Circassian princes to Imam Shamil to Britain) to connect the two struggles, connections between the Circassians and their allies with their Eastern Caucasian counterparts were quashed by an Ossetian alliance with Russia.
Hostilities peaked in the 19th century, and led directly to the Russian-Circassian War
Russian-Circassian War
The Russian–Circassian War refers to a series of battles and wars in Circassia, the northwestern part of the Caucasus, which were part of the Russian Empire's conquest of the Caucasus lasting approximately 150 years, starting under the reign of Tsar Peter the Great and being completed in 1864...
, in which the Circassians, along with the Abkhaz
Abkhaz people
The Abkhaz or Abkhazians are a Caucasian ethnic group, mainly living in Abkhazia, a disputed region on the Black Sea coast. A large Abkhazian diaspora population resides in Turkey, the origins of which lie in the emigration from the Caucasus in the late 19th century known as Muhajirism...
, Ubykhs
Ubykh people
The Ubykh are a group who spoke the Northwest Caucasian Ubykh language, until other local languages displaced it and its last speaker died in 1992....
, Abazins
Abazins
The Abazins are a people who live mostly in Karachay-Cherkessia and Adygea of Russia.An Abazin diaspora exists in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt , and other Islamic countries, most of which are descendants of refugees from the Caucasian War...
, Nogais
Nogais
The Nogai people are a Turkic ethnic group in Southern Russia: northern Dagestan and Stavropol Krai, as well as in Karachay-Cherkessia and the Astrakhan Oblast; undefined number live in Chechnya...
, Chechens
Chechen people
Chechens constitute the largest native ethnic group originating in the North Caucasus region. They refer to themselves as Noxçi . Also known as Sadiks , Gargareans, Malkhs...
and in the later stages the Ingush
Ingush people
The Ingush are a native ethnic group of the North Caucasus, mostly inhabiting the Russian republic of Ingushetia. They refer to themselves as Ghalghai . The Ingush are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak the Ingush language...
(who started out as allies of Russia), as well as a number of Turkic tribes, fought the Russians to maintain their independence. This conflict became entangled with the ensuing Crimean War
Crimean War
The Crimean War was a conflict fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining...
, and at various times the Ottomans
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
gave small assistance to the Circassian side. Additionally, the Circassians succeeded in securing the sympathies of London
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
, and in the later stages of the Crimean War, the British supplied arms and intelligence to the Circassians, who reciprocated by busying the Russians and returning with intelligence of their own. However, this was not enough to save the Circassians from the oncoming defeat and Russian domination. Russia finally subdued the Circassians, tribe after tribe, with the Ubykhs, Abazins, Abkhaz and Balkars
Balkars
The Balkars are a Turkic people of the Caucasus region, one of the titular populations of Kabardino-Balkaria. They are possibly Bulgars or are descended from them...
being last. While some tribes accepted Russian rule after being firmly conquered, others continued insurgency, even though Circassia as a whole had surrendered.
Russia soon proceeded to order the Muhajirs. Approximately 1-1.5 million Circassians were killed, and upon order of the Tsar, and most of the Muslim population was deported (i.e., all except Ossete Muslims and Kabardins; the modern Circassians and Abazins either managed to escape or, as is the case with most, returned; at the time after the deportation, as Charles King notes in his books, travelers who searched throughout the area for Circassians could not find any left except the Kabardins), mainly to the Ottoman Empire, causing the exile of another 1.5 million Circassians and others. This effectively annihilated (or deported) 90% of the nation. Circassians were viewed as tools by the Ottoman government, and settled in restive ares of nationalist yearnings- Armenia, the Arab regions and the Balkans. Many more Circassians were killed by the policies of the Balkan states, primarily Serbia and Bulgaria, which became independent at that time. Still more Circassians were forcefully assimilated by nationalist Muslim states (Turkey, Syria, Iraq, etc.) who looked upon non-Turk/Arab ethnicity as a foreign presence and a threat.
Emergence of the modern movement
The modern movement has its roots in secret societies as well as organizations during the perestroikaPerestroika
Perestroika was a political movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during 1980s, widely associated with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev...
period under Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev is a former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the last head of state of the USSR, having served from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991...
.
Support
Circassian nationalism is becoming increasingly popular among younger Circassians, and to a lesser extent, older ones as well. It is now almost universally popular among younger Circassians, causing fears for the Russian government (especially as now the Circassians' neighbors, such as the Balkars/Karachei, have adopted similar agendas). It is suspected by some analysts that even the republican governments have members with nationalistic agendas.Modern Circassian nationalism is the ideology of several activist groups in the so-called "Circassian belt" of autonomous republics in Russia, as well as in areas where the Circassian diaspora is (Turkey, Israel, etc.), and in Abkhazia, which has ethnic ties to Circassia.
The widely criticized 1999 election in Karachay-Cherkessia
Karachay-Cherkessia
The Karachay-Cherkess Republic , or Karachay-Cherkessia is a federal subject of Russia . Population: -Geography:*Area: *Borders:**internal: Krasnodar Krai , Kabardino-Balkar Republic , Stavropol Krai ....
, where the Cherkes candidate was beaten causing huge crowds of Abazins
Abazins
The Abazins are a people who live mostly in Karachay-Cherkessia and Adygea of Russia.An Abazin diaspora exists in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt , and other Islamic countries, most of which are descendants of refugees from the Caucasian War...
and Circassians in the capital to lead protests, became a source of martyrdom.
Both Adyge Khase and the International Circassian Organization have declared that there aim is "to protect the rights of the Circassians wherever they live and to facilitate the return of the substantial portion of the Circassian Diaspora to the Circassian inhabited lands of the Northwest Caucasus to change the demographic structure" (back to what it was before ethnic cleansing occurred)
Attempting to achieve recognition of the "Circassian genocide" is also a very prominent movement among Circassians, though it is not necessarily purely nationalist. Another major movement, often tied into this, but more blatantly nationalistic, is the movement to recreate a "historical Circassia", the core of Circassian nationalism, with its historical territories, and make Circassian one group on the census. There is a feeling among some Circassians that the notion that Kabardins, Adyghe
Adyghe people
The Adyghe or Adygs , also often known as Circassians or Cherkess, are in origin a North Caucasian ethnic groupwho were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century, especially after the Russian–Circassian War of 1862.Adyghe people mostly speak Adyghe and most...
, Cherkes and Shapsugs
Shapsugs
Shapsugs are a people/tribe of the Adyghe branch, who are currently living in Tuapsinsky District of Krasnodar Krai, Lazarevsky City District of Sochi, and in the Republic of Adygea in Russia...
(all four are separate on the Russian census) are different nations is a Kremlin strategy designed to divide the Circassian nation. Many politicians even warn that if this is not removed, that "dismemberment will ultimately lead to the death of the Circassian nation". Many Circassian nationalists (moderates, such as Cherkesov) do not advocate withdrawing from the Russian federation, that a unified Circassia albeit still within Russia is good enough. Nonetheless, most assert that this unified Circassia within Russia should have one official language, Adyghe
Adyghe language
Adyghe language , also known as West Circassian , is one of the two official languages of the Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation, the other being Russian. It is spoken by various tribes of the Adyghe people: Abzekh, Adamey, Bzhedugh; Hatukuay, Kemirgoy, Makhosh; Natekuay, Shapsigh; Zhane,...
.
The movement to split Karachai-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria has won itself the official support of many Circassians (especially in Karachai-Cherkessia, where Karachai and Russians dominate government posts) as well as the influential Circassian organization "Adyge Khase".
After the crisis involving the ethnic identity of the man who first scaled Mt.Elbrus, a group of young Circassians, led by Aslan Zhukov, reconquered the mountain in a symbolic move. Aslan Zhukov (also 36-year-old founder of Adyge Djegu, another major Circassian nationalist organization) was then murdered on March 14, 2010 by a gunshot in a dark alley. His death spurred another round of rioting among Circassians, who variously attribute his death to the government of the republic, the Russian government, the Russians in the republic or the Karachay, some combination, or all four. The head of the republic said that his death should not be painted in ethnic terms but this only resulted in the addition of him to the list of possible culprits from the Circassian point of view.
Adygea
In Adygea, a number of reports came in August 2009 about Russian Orthodox crosses being thrown off mountains in symbolic demonstrations against the Russian Orthodox church, viewed by Circassians as a symbol of oppression.The perceived favoritism of Moscow towards the Cossacks is also a major bone of contention amongst Circassians.
An organization calling itself "Union of Slavs", led by Nina Konovaleva and Boris Karatayev, was created in 1991 to counter the activities of Circassian organizations such as Adyge Khase, and prevent Circassians from removing Russians from positions of prestige and power, as well as to "protect Russians/Cossacks from Circassian control of the land". In 1991, Union of Slavs in Adygeya actively opposed the establishment of Adygeya as separate from Krasnodar Krai as an ethnic republic within Russia, stating that Circassians were only 22% of the populace and as such, it was not fair to the other 78%. The Union of Slavs has called the increasing autonomy of Adygeya and the activism in Karachai-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria part of a "dangerous conspiracy" to create a "Greater Circassia", achieve demographic dominance by repatriating Diaspora Circassians, and then marginalize or even expel the Russian residents ("colonists", in Circassian ideology). It has called for the liquidation of the three Circassian republics (two of which are also shared with Karachays
Karachays
The Karachays are Turkic speaking people of the North Caucasus, mostly situated in the Russian Karachay-Cherkess Republic.-History:The Karachays are a Turkic speaking people descending from the Kipchaks and probably the Cumans, with some admixture of the medieval Alans and native Caucasians; their...
or Balkars
Balkars
The Balkars are a Turkic people of the Caucasus region, one of the titular populations of Kabardino-Balkaria. They are possibly Bulgars or are descended from them...
) due to "discrimination of Russians".
In Karachayevo-Cherkessia
In November 2009, in response to a fallacious news article deemed to slander the nation, Circassian activists ramped up efforts with the scheduling of a mass-protest against the ignorance of the Russian government and the Russian people of their rights in Karachaevo-Cherkessia. However, the government canceled the gathering, saying it would be banning any and all public gatherings for an indefinite period to prevent the spread of the H1N1 flu virus. However, the head of the Circassian youth movement, Timur Jujuev, said "All the public markets continue working on a regular basis, so where is the emergency? We are going to organize the demonstration even if we will need to wear surgical masks and even if we do not have a license from the government. This is not the will of one or two men; it is the will of a nation, and we have right to say what we think".There has also been an swift escalation of tension between the Circassians and the non-Circassians in the three republics (Russians, Karachai and Balkars). While the Russians in Adygea demand the abolition of Adygea, the Karachai have taken to a strategy of keeping Circassians out of office- Jamestown reports that "Over the last seven months, the Karachai majority in the KCHR parliament have repeatedly banned the Circassian candidate Vyacheslav Derev from taking a position in the Russian Federation Council" (the time of reporting was November 2009). Furthermore, for the last 31 years, no Circassian has held the highest post in the republic, as the Soviet and then Russian officials always appointed Karachai.
There is a movement, highly popular among both Circassians and Karachai (but not Russians, obviously), to divide the republic into monoethnic units of Cherkessia and Karacheia, perhaps to prepare these units for a merger.
There have also been numerous clashes between Karachai and Circassian historians over various historical issues. One of the most scandalous cases occurred when Karachai historians claimed that the conqueror of Mt. Elbrus (Khashar Chilar in Circassian, Hilar Hakirov in Karachai) was a Karachai rather than a Circassian from Nal'chik (going against the testimony of the members of the early 19th century expedition to the top of the mountain which he led). On November 20, a poster hailing the "great Karachai hero" Hakilov in Cherkessk
Cherkessk
Cherkessk is the capital city of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Russia, as well as its political, economic, and cultural center. Population: 121,439 ; 116,244 ; -History:...
was burned and destroyed by unknown perpetrators.
What actually started the protests by Circassians in Karachaevo-Cherkessia was a news article by the local newspaper Express-Post. It denied the fact that the Circassian village of Besleney had saved dozens of Jewish children from the Nazis, prompting a joint Jewish-Circassian contingent to protest the existence of the report as well as an outcry in Circassian-operated independent media sources. Express-Post apologized later, but it was these protests that were planned to be spread to the capital (and canceled) to protest the general "deep oppression" of Circassians.
In Kabardino-Balkaria
Intended to coincide with protests in Karachay-Cherkessia, Circassian youth groups held mass "national protests" in Kabardino-Balkaria on November 17, 2009. It was attended by about 3000 people (considering that it was limited to the city of Nal'chik and the small population of the republic's Circassian population alone, let alone in that city, this is a huge figure). Ibragim Yagan, a leader of a Circassian NGO posted a video on Facebook. It featured him standing under both the flag of the Russian Federation and the Circassian national flag, called upon all Circassian youth to wake up to claim their rights and historic lands. He said that "We have been constantly watched, followed, blackmailed for our political activities... But we cannot lose anymore, because we have already lost everything." Yagan is then drowned out by a wave of cheers.It is important to note that unlike in Adygea (22% Circassian as of 2003) and Karachai-Cherkessia (11-16%, depending on if the Abazins are considered Circassian, in 2003), Kabardino-Balkaria has a clear Circassian (of the Kabardin subdivision) majority (at 55%). However, "after the parliament of KBR ratified the bill ‘On land and territory’ earlier this month, each Balkar living in KBR in turn has received 10.6 hectares of the land while only 1.6 hectares belong to each Circassian" noted Jelyabi Kalmykov, and this soon became a rallying cry at the protest. Ruslan Keshev, the leader of the Circassian Congress in Kabardino-Balkaria declared that "If the government does not listen to us we are ready for radical actions. This is the only homeland we have."
Russian Recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia
The Russian recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia is also an issue. On one hand, Circassians are often highly enthusiastic to help the Abkhaz, who they view as brothers, and are enthusiastic also for Abkhazia's independence. On the other hand, however, it evidences a perceived double standard used negatively on the Chechens (whom many Circassians supported during the First Chechen WarFirst Chechen War
The First Chechen War, also known as the War in Chechnya, was a conflict between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, fought from December 1994 to August 1996...
), and to a lesser extent, the Circassians as well. Paul Goble noted that the recognition of South Ossetia, in addition to enraging the Chechens and Ingush, also radicalized many Circassians against Russia, because of the mass of double standards.
There is a large amount of cooperation between Circassian activists and Abkhazia as well: Circassians poured into Abkhazia to assist them in their war for independence against Georgia, and most websites dedicated to independence of Circassia or promotion of Abkhazia are linked to their cross-Caucasus counterpart. For example, AbkhazWorld and CircassianWorld both have each other as top affiliate, both using the same design style for their sites and in the "About Us" section of both sites, both make note that they are, in fact, part of the same project.
According to Western Circassophile Colarusso, some Circassians consider Abkhazia a possible addition to Circassia if the Abkhaz themselves wish to join.
Repatriation
Repatriation has been a major issue. The Russian state (as well as Russians in general), as noted above, is highly suspicious of any return of the Circassians (not in the least because it was Russia who exiled them in the first place for "security reasons"), while Circassians living in Circassia view it as the only way to revive the nation and save it from extinction.The Circassians have set up a number of organizations with the explicit goal of encouraging return of their "brothers". The most notable of these is the ICA (International Circassian Association)'s "Repatriation Committee", which has branches in several countries.
Russia has a double digit official repatriation quota for Circassians viewed by many (Colarusso, Henze, etc.) as being an attempt to prevent the Circassians, who are viewed as a threat, from returning.
On August 9, 2009, Adygea officially attempted to overrule the Russian immigration quota for Circassians by putting forth its own de facto quota, which was drastically higher, allowing many more Circassians to return to their homeland. According to Western Circassophile John Colarusso, the movement to allow and encourage Circassian return to their homeland (hence, changing the demographics in a way that is advantageous for the Circassians and disadvantageous for the Russians) is one of the major objectives and rallying points of the modern movement.
Russia has also unintentionally (in addition to the single-digit quota for Circassians, which is defined as including all four of the census groups as well as the Abazins) set up a number of barriers. According to an essay by Cicek Chek, these include:
Circassians living in the North Caucasus and the more numerous Circassians living in the Diaspora have been seeking a radical simplification of the procedures for the repatriation of the community. Most Circassians who have tried to return have fallen under the provisions of the 1991 Russian citizenship law which requires that:
- they give up their previous citizenship,
- live in the country for five years before getting Russian citizenship
- know Russian, and pass a test on the Russian Constitution,
- keep a large sum in a bank of the republic that they try to acquire the citizenship from, and
- people holding non-ordinary passports (diplomatic, privileged, etc) could not apply at all.
The situation has further deteriorated as a result of the adoption in 2003 of the Russian law on the legal status of foreign citizens living in the Russian Federation. That measure makes it even more difficult for Circassians from the Diaspora to return. Despite official statements from Moscow favoring increased repatriation, the current repatriation regime has been a complete failure by any measure.
Additionally, many Circassians in the diaspora opt not to return for additional reasons of inconvenience, losing job and economic well-being, losing contact with friends, etc.
There have been numerous instances of murders of returnee Circassians by ethnic Russians living in both Krasnodar and Adygea.
It has been reported that the fact that Russia's repatriation policies have shown heavy favoritism to ethnic Russians and have granted very few if any Circassians the right to return is another major grievance, especially considering that the return of Circassians to Russia would aid Russia in its attempts to overcome its crisis of declining population.
Diaspora renaissance
In the first decade of the 21st century, the Circassian diasporaCircassian diaspora
The Circassian diaspora refers to the resettlement of the Circassian population, especially during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. From 1763 to 1864, the Circassians fought against the Russian Empire in the Russian-Circassian War, finally succumbing to a scorched-earth campaign...
abroad has begun experiencing a cultural reawakening. Contacts are being established with their homeland, but also, more importantly, there are now many institutions being founded to strengthen the Circassian identity within the diaspora. For example, in 2005, the Circassian Education Foundation (website here: http://www.circassianfoundation.org), a scholarship fund for Circassians, was founded in Wayne, New Jersey, USA. It is, in fact, a creation of a mother-organization, the Circassian Benevolent Organization. It has since given scholarship funds to Circassians across the US. The organization (Circassian Education Foundation) has also worked on a project of making a free online Circassian-American English dictionary (available here: http://www.circassianfoundation.org/dictionary which will then, it hopes, be used by Circassians for their language so they can, in turn pass it on to their children as well as revitalize it.
The Circassian diaspora in the Middle East also are undergoing a cultural reawakening, largely due to the reestablishment of contacts with their homeland, however, unlike that in Western countries (primarily the US, Germany, The Netherlands, Austria and Israel), it is often paired with tension between Circassians and the ethnic majority of the country, Arabs or Turks. The governments of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Libya have all forced assimilation of Circassians and suppressed their culture in the past and suppressed various attempts at past renaissances. Nonetheless, in the past few years, in many of these countries, the diaspora has become much more aware of their identity and active. "Nart-TV", a program broadcasting from Adygeya, about Circassian identity, history and life, is now broadcasting in many Middle Eastern countries, including Israel and Jordan.
On August 8, 2010, a university opened in Amman, Jordan, specifically for Circassians to preserve Circassian heritage and culture, with classes in the Circassian language and on Circassian culture and history in addition to practical topics.
Russian reaction
Russians may view Circassian nationalism extremely fearfully and suspiciously, not simply because it claims a chunk of what Moscow considers its territory, but because, just as was the case with Chechnya, the Baltics, and so on, nationalist movements may result in the loss of the previous prestige and dominance by ethnic Russians, a stigmatization of the Russian language, and the re-establishment of native dominance (hence, the "South Africa" syndrome).As a result of tensions, politics in all three republics are often highly ethnic-based, and in Kabardino-Balkaria
Kabardino-Balkaria
The Kabardino-Balkar Republic , or Kabardino-Balkaria , is a federal subject of Russia located in the North Caucasus. Population: -Geography:The republic is situated in the North Caucasus mountains, with plains in the northern part....
and Karachay-Cherkessia
Karachay-Cherkessia
The Karachay-Cherkess Republic , or Karachay-Cherkessia is a federal subject of Russia . Population: -Geography:*Area: *Borders:**internal: Krasnodar Krai , Kabardino-Balkar Republic , Stavropol Krai ....
, the dispute is often three-way (Russians vs. Circassians and Abazins vs. Karachay in Karachay-Cherkessia; Russians vs. Kabardins vs. Balkars in Kabardino-Balkaria).
While Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachai-Cherkessia's non-Circassian leaders have come under fire from Circassian nationalists for "oppression", ethnic Adyge leader Aslan Dzharimov
Aslan Dzharimov
Aslan Aliyevich Dzharimov is a Russian politician of Adyghe ethnicity who served as the President of the Republic of Adygea.-Education:He graduated from the Agronomy Faculty of the Kuban Agricultural Institute in 1964, post-graduate degree in agricultural economics in 1968 , ANI of the Central...
of Adygea styled himself as a moderate who would balance the centralizing urges of Moscow and the Russians against the autonomism/separatism of the Adyge. Although originally popular on this premise, he soon ended up angering both sides, and Adyge Khase denounced him as a collaborationist and "traitor to the Circassian nation".
Russians may often view the three republics as integral parts of Russia, especially since Russians are an overwhelming majority of the resident population in Adygea.
The Russian government has taken to either trying to silence the nationalism or trying to gain control over individual Circassian activist groups. Analysts, even Russians such as Sergei Markedonov have voiced concern over what they perceive as the continuing "radicalization" of Circassian youth due to the Kremlin's attempts to control them, and are disappointed that Medvedev continues this policy.
In addition, Russia officially keeps a very low immigration quota for Circassians - as low as 50 (though the only republics Circassians would likely to immigrate to are those in former Circassia). The government of Adygea, however, has seized the opportunity to override this quota for their own territory with their own version: 1400 per year for Adygea alone (rather than 50 per year for all of Russia). After Russian protest at this action, Adygea said that they were in fact acting on Yeltsin's own words – for republics to "take as much sovereignty as they can swallow".
Russia has criticized articles in the constitutions of the three republics discussing heritage, language and the like and labeling them as "separatist", recommending they be edited.
Some websites, such as CircassianWorld have published various articles of stories from Circassian activists about them (the activists) being intimidated by "FSB veterans", as the activists claim they identified them as.
Russia has denounced several of the assertions that the Adygei have of their history (in addition to Ukrainian accounts of Holodomor and Chechen and other accounts of the perceivedly genocidal deportation to Siberia) - including the genocide - as false and "fabrications", and as attempts to throw tar on Russia's reputation.
The Cossacks, even more than normal Russians, are highly antagonistic towards Circassian nationalism, as it is towards their aims, which include the revival of traditional Cossack paramilitary forces, already underway in Russia (see Cossacks and related pages). Circassians believe that will be a tool, as the Cossacks were in the past, for oppression of ethnic minorities and silencing their demands.
Many journalists, both Circassian and Russian (for example, Natalya Rykova), have stated that Russian "skinheads" are intrinsically tied to the ethnic tensions in the "Circassian" republics, whose opinions they perceive as being advanced not in the least by the Russian media. According to the above-cited article from Window-On-Eurasia, "Polls show that many Russians believe the problem of hate crimes can be solved either by restricting immigration or by toughening law enforcement", and that "...Confronted with this challenge, the Russian government has largely failed to do what is necessary to contain it. It "liquidated" a special ministry for nationality affairs. It closed the federal program for promoting tolerance and countering extremism. And it fails to provide sufficient funds and staff to other ministries to deal with the challenge." Furthermore, Putin's current policy for internal division of the Russian Federation is not at all pleasing for advocates of self-determination: it advocates "enlargement of regions of Russia". Sergei Mironov stated on March 30, 2002 that "89 federation subjects is too much, but larger regional units are easier to manage" and that the goal was to merge them into 7 federal districts. Gradually, over time, ethnic republics were to be abolished to accomplish this goal of integration.
Many people, ranging from Circassian activist coordinators to Akhmed Zakayev
Akhmed Zakayev
Akhmed Khalidovich Zakayev is the former Deputy Prime Minister and the current Prime Minister of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria , which is unrecognised by other countries...
, Ichkerian head of government-in-exile to the liberal journalist Fatima Tlisova have speculated that Russia has tried to use a policy of divide and rule throughout the North Caucasus (citing examples of the Circassian vs. Karachai/Balkar rivalry, Ossetian-Ingush conflict, Georgian-Abkhaz conflict
Georgian-Abkhaz conflict
The Georgian–Abkhazian conflict refers to the ethnic conflict between Georgians and Abkhazians in Abkhazia, which is presently a de facto independent partially recognized republic...
, Georgian-Ossetian conflict
Georgian-Ossetian conflict
The Georgian–Ossetian conflict refers to the ethno-political conflict in Georgia's autonomous region of South Ossetia, which evolved in 1989 and developed into a 1991–1992 South Ossetia War. Despite a declared ceasefire and numerous peace efforts, the conflict remains unresolved, and minor armed...
, interethnic rivalries in Dagestan and even the Nagorno-Karabakh War
Nagorno-Karabakh War
The Nagorno-Karabakh War was an armed conflict that took place from February 1988 to May 1994, in the small enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan, between the majority ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by the Republic of Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan...
, which Russia also insists on mediating), creating "unnatural conflicts" that can only be solved by Kremlin intervention, keeping Caucasian peoples both weak and dependent on Russia to mediate their conflicts. Sufian Jemukhov and Alexei Bekshokov, leaders of the "Circassian Sports Initiative" stated that the conflict "has the potential to blow up the whole Caucasus into a bloody mess with the mass civilian casualties and therefore keep the Circassians from opposing the Sochi Winter Olympics...Moscow plays the conflict scenario when the participants do not have the ability to solve the conflict, but the conflict is absolutely manageable and can be easily solved by its rulers from the Kremlin."
In the context of the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics
The occurrence and location of the Sochi Olympics are particularly inflaming, and even insulting, to Circassians. They will take place at the site of one of the largest post Russo-Circassian war massacres of Circassians, and on the official anniversaryCircassian Day of Mourning
The North Caucasus is the homeland of the Circassians. The region stretches along the high peaks of the Caucasian mountain range at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, bounded by Russia from the north and the Middle East from the south....
of Circassian Genocide (as claimed by Circassian activists). As a result, it has become a rallying point to the Circassian activist organizations.
Campaign for genocide recognition
Former Russian President Boris Yeltsin's 1994 made a statement acknowledging “resistance to the tsarist forces [in the 19th century] was legitimate,” but he stopped short of recognizing “the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide.”A few years later, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and Adygea sent appeals to the Duma, asking it “to reconsider the situation and to issue the needed apology.”
In the later years of the 2000-2010 decade, the movement to secure recognition for the Circassian genocide, largely taking a leaf out of the book of the Armenians has gained in momentum and popularity. Reasons for this include the location of the Sochi Olympics, US recognition of the Armenian genocide (prompting a bill on the Circassian genocide in New Jersey, where most Circassians in the US live) and the repeated insistence by Russians that the Georgians committed "genocide" against the Abkhaz and Ossetes.
In October 2006, the Circassian organizations operating in Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and several other countries with well-sized diasporas sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with a request to recognize the genocide against the Circassian people. There has been no action taken so far.
Circassians have attempted to attract global media attention to the Circassian Genocide and its relation to the city of Sochi (where the Olympics will be held in 2014) by holding mass protests in Vancouver, Istanbul and New York during the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.
On March 20, 2010, a Circassian Genocide Congress was held in the Georgian capitol of Tbilisi, funded in part by the Circassian members of the Western political analysis center, the Jamestown Federation
The Jamestown Foundation
The Jamestown Foundation is a Washington, D.C.-based institute for research and analysis, founded in 1984 as a platform to support Soviet dissidents. Today its stated mission is to "inform and educate" policy makers about events and trends, which it regards as being of current "strategic"...
. .
The congress passed a resolution, urging Georgia to become the first UN-recognized State to recognize the Circassian Genocide.In May 2011, Georgia followed through and recognized the acts as a genocide. Soon after, the Chechen separatist government-in-exile announced that it commended Georgia's decision, and advocated pan-Caucasian solidarity, and Circassians, Georgians, Chechens and other Caucasian diaspora in European countries staged demonstrations to show their support. The Georgian flag was seen flying in Nalchik in appreciation for the Georgian recognition, the capital of Kabardino-Balkaria, which had been a bastion of anti-Georgian sentiment before the recognition.
See also
- Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians
- UbykhsUbykhiaUbykhia was a commonwealth of Ubykh tribes in the 14th-19th centuries. It was situated in what is today Sochi, Krasnodar Krai, Russia....
(Circassian nation totally disappeared after genocide) - Circassian beautiesCircassian beautiesCircassian beauties is a term used to refer to an idealized image of the women of the Circassian people of the Northern Caucasus. A fairly extensive literary history suggests that Circassian women were thought to be unusually beautiful, spirited and elegant, and as such were desirable as concubines...
- Circassian Day of MourningCircassian Day of MourningThe North Caucasus is the homeland of the Circassians. The region stretches along the high peaks of the Caucasian mountain range at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, bounded by Russia from the north and the Middle East from the south....
- Circassian people
- Kabardino-BalkariaKabardino-BalkariaThe Kabardino-Balkar Republic , or Kabardino-Balkaria , is a federal subject of Russia located in the North Caucasus. Population: -Geography:The republic is situated in the North Caucasus mountains, with plains in the northern part....
- Karachay-CherkessiaKarachay-CherkessiaThe Karachay-Cherkess Republic , or Karachay-Cherkessia is a federal subject of Russia . Population: -Geography:*Area: *Borders:**internal: Krasnodar Krai , Kabardino-Balkar Republic , Stavropol Krai ....
- Russo-Circassian War
- Adygea
- Adyghe peopleAdyghe peopleThe Adyghe or Adygs , also often known as Circassians or Cherkess, are in origin a North Caucasian ethnic groupwho were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century, especially after the Russian–Circassian War of 1862.Adyghe people mostly speak Adyghe and most...
- Kabardin people
- Shapsugh people
- 2010 Circassian Genocide conference in Tbilisi
- 2014 Sochi Olympics
- HolodomorHolodomorThe Holodomor was a man-made famine in the Ukrainian SSR between 1932 and 1933. During the famine, which is also known as the "terror-famine in Ukraine" and "famine-genocide in Ukraine", millions of Ukrainians died of starvation in a peacetime catastrophe unprecedented in the history of...
- Armenian GenocideArmenian GenocideThe Armenian Genocide—also known as the Armenian Holocaust, the Armenian Massacres and, by Armenians, as the Great Crime—refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I...
External links
- Circassian World – A website celebrating Circassian culture and nation. It has extensive news reporting and coverage of issues, maps of historical Circassia, as well as essays by historians, linguists, etc., and tracks of popular modern Circassian music
- The Circassian Education Foundation, a scholarship fund organization for Circassian children, which also works on an online dictionary for Circassian to English
- Youtube video showing historical Circassia with its tribal divisions, speaking briefly about the desire for a free nation. Movie made by a Circassian.
- Another Youtube video, this one discussing the belief among Circassian scholars about links to the Ancient Hatti in Anatolia, also backed by some linguists. Video from nationalist website www.circassiantv.net. In Adyghe (Circassian) language)