Battle of Lalakaon
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Lalakaon or Battle of Po(r)son was fought in 863 between the Byzantine Empire
and an invading Arab army in Paphlagonia
(modern northern Turkey
). The Byzantine army was led by emperor Michael III
's uncle, Petronas the Patrician, although Arab sources also mention the presence of Michael himself, while the Arabs were led by the emir
of Melitene (Malatya
), Omar al-Aqta.
Omar al-Aqta was able to brush off the initial Byzantine resistance against his invasion and reach the shores of the Black Sea
. The Byzantines, however, mobilized their forces, and the Arab army was encircled near the river Lalakaon. The subsequent battle ended in a complete Byzantine victory and the death of the emir on the field, and was followed by a successful Byzantine counter-offensive across the border. The Byzantine victories proved decisive: the main threats to the Byzantine borderlands were eliminated, and the era of Byzantine ascendancy in the East, which would culminate in the great conquests of the 10th century, had begun.
The Byzantine success had another corollary: deliverance from the constant Arab pressure of the eastern frontier allowed the Byzantine government to concentrate on affairs in Europe, and, in particular, neighboring Bulgaria
. The Bulgarians were pressured into accepting
the Byzantine form of Christianity, thus ensuring that this nation would come within the Byzantine cultural sphere.
of the 7th century, the Byzantine Empire found itself confined to Asia Minor
, the southern coasts of the Balkans
, and parts of Italy
. As Byzantium remained the Caliphate
's major infidel
enemy, Arab raids (razzias) into Asia Minor continued throughout the 8th and 9th centuries. Over time, these expeditions, launched from bases in the Arab frontier zone
on an almost annual basis, acquired a quasi-ritualized character.
During that period, the Byzantines were generally on the defensive, and suffered some catastrophic defeats such as the razing of Amorium
, the home city of the reigning Byzantine dynasty, in 838. However, with the waning of the Abbasid Caliphate's power after 842 and the rise of semi-independent emirates beyond the Byzantine eastern frontier, the Byzantines were increasingly able to assert their own power.
In the 850s, the most persistent threats to the Empire were the emirate of Malatya
(Greek: Melitene) under Omar al-Aqta, the emirate of Tarsus
under Ali ibn Yahya
("Ali the Armenian"), the emirate of Qaliqala (Greek: Theodosiopolis, modern Erzurum
) and the Paulicians of Tephrike under their leader Karbeas. Melitene, in particular, was a major threat to Byzantium as its location on the western side of the Anti-Taurus range
allowed direct access to the Anatolian plateau. An indication of the threat posed by these states came in 860, when their combined actions turned the year into a veritable annus horribilis
for the Byzantines: Omar and Karbeas raided deep into Asia Minor and returned with much plunder; they were followed shortly after by another raid by the forces of Tarsus under Ali, while a naval attack from Syria sacked the major Byzantine naval base at Attaleia.
, and it is likely that a Paulician contingent under Karbeas was present as well. According to the Byzantine history of Theophanes Continuatus
, the Arab army numbered 40,000 men. Modern estimates lower that number to ca. 20,000, but it still represented a very large army for its time. The Arabs crossed the Cilician Gates
into Byzantine territory, plundering as they went, until they reached a place near Tyana
. There, for unknown reasons, the larger army of Tarsos turned back, while the emir of Melitene decided to press on alone.
According to the contemporary Muslim historian Ya'qubi, Omar had 8,000 men at his disposal. On the Byzantine side, Emperor Michael III had assembled his army to counter the Arab raid, and met them at a battle in an area called Marj al-Usquf ("Bishop's Meadow") by Arab sources, a highland near Malakopea, north of Nazianzus
. The battle was bloody with many casualties on both sides; according to the Persian historian al-Tabari
, only a thousand of Omar's army survived. Nevertheless, the Arabs managed to evade the Byzantines and continue their raid north into the Armeniac
theme, eventually reaching the Black Sea and sacking the port city of Amisos.
of the Thracesian Theme
. Al-Tabari records that the emperor himself assumed command of these forces, but this is not supported by Byzantine sources. However, given the bias against Michael by the historians writing during the Macedonian dynasty
, this may be a deliberate omission. The forces assembled came from all over the Empire. Three separate armies were formed which converged upon the Arabs: a northern Byzantine force composed of the forces from the Black Sea themes of the Armeniacs, Bucellarians
(under Nasar
), Koloneia
and Paphlagonia
; a southern force, probably the one that had already fought at the Bishop's Meadow and had kept shadowing the Arab army, composed from the Anatolic
, Opsician and Cappadocian
themes, as well as the kleisourai
of Seleukeia and Charsianon
; and the western force, under Petronas himself, comprising the men of the Macedonian, Thracian
and the Thracesian themes and of the imperial tagmata
.
The coordination of all these forces was not easy, but the Byzantine armies, marching from three directions, were able to converge on the same day (2 September) and surround Omar's smaller army at a location called Poson (Greek: Πόσων) or Porson (Greek: Πόρσων) near the Lalakaon river. The exact location of the river and the battle site have not been identified; most scholars, however, agree that they lay near the river Halys, some 130 kilometres (80.8 mi) southeast of Amisos. With the approach of the Byzantine armies, the only open escape route left to the emir and his men was dominated by a strategically located hill. During the night, both Arabs and Byzantines endeavored to occupy it, but the Byzantines emerged victorious from the ensuing fight. On the next day, 3 September, Omar decided to throw his entire force towards the west, where Petronas was located, in hopes of achieving a breakthrough. The Byzantines, however, stood firm, giving the other two Byzantine wings the time to close in and attack the Arab army's exposed rear and flanks. The rout was complete, as the larger part of the Arab army and Omar himself fell on the field. Casualties also possibly included the Paulician leader Karbeas: although the latter's participation in the battle is uncertain, it is recorded that he died in that year.
Only the emir's son, at the head of a small force, managed to escape the battlefield, fleeing south towards the border area of Charsianon. He was, however, pursued by Machairas, the kleisourarchēs of Charsianon, and was defeated and captured with many of his men.
, and sometime in October–November, defeated and killed the emir Ali ibn Yahya. Thus, within a single campaigning season, the Byzantines had eliminated the three most dangerous opponents on their eastern border. In retrospect, these successes proved decisive, as the battle permanently destroyed the power of Melitene. The Byzantine victory at Lalakaon altered the strategic balance in the region, and heralded the beginning of Byzantium's century-long offensive in the East.
The importance of these victories did not go unnoticed by contemporaries either: the Byzantines hailed them as revenge for the sack of Amorium 25 years earlier, the victorious generals were granted a triumphal entry into Constantinople, and special celebrations and services were held. Petronas was awarded the high court title of magistros, and Charsianon was raised to a full theme.
The removal of the eastern threat and the rise of the Byzantines' confidence also opened up opportunities in the west, where the Bulgarian ruler Boris
had been negotiating with the Pope
and Louis the German
for a possible conversion of himself and his pagan people to Christianity. This expansion of Rome's ecclesiastic influence up to Constantinople's very doorstep could not be tolerated by the Byzantine government. In 864, the victorious eastern armies were transferred to Europe and invaded Bulgaria, in a demonstration of military might that convinced Boris to accept Byzantine missionaries instead. Boris was baptized, taking the name Michael in honor of the emperor, thus beginning the Christianization of Bulgaria
and ensuring that his nation would be part of the Byzantine-influenced, Eastern Orthodox world.
, the Byzantine success against the Arabs that culminated with the Battle of Lalakaon inspired the creation of one the oldest surviving acritic
(heroic) poems: the Song of Armouris
. Grégoire claimed that the eponymous protagonist, the young Byzantine warrior Armouris, was actually inspired by emperor Michael III.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
and an invading Arab army in Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia was an ancient area on the Black Sea coast of north central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus to the east, and separated from Phrygia by a prolongation to the east of the Bithynian Olympus...
(modern northern Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
). The Byzantine army was led by emperor Michael III
Michael III
Michael III , , Byzantine Emperor from 842 to 867. Michael III was the third and traditionally last member of the Amorian-Phrygian Dynasty...
's uncle, Petronas the Patrician, although Arab sources also mention the presence of Michael himself, while the Arabs were led by the emir
Emir
Emir , meaning "commander", "general", or "prince"; also transliterated as Amir, Aamir or Ameer) is a title of high office, used throughout the Muslim world...
of Melitene (Malatya
Malatya
Malatya ) is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of its eponymous province.-Overview:The city site has been occupied for thousands of years. The Assyrians called the city Meliddu. Following Roman expansion into the east, the city was renamed in Latin as Melitene...
), Omar al-Aqta.
Omar al-Aqta was able to brush off the initial Byzantine resistance against his invasion and reach the shores of the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
. The Byzantines, however, mobilized their forces, and the Arab army was encircled near the river Lalakaon. The subsequent battle ended in a complete Byzantine victory and the death of the emir on the field, and was followed by a successful Byzantine counter-offensive across the border. The Byzantine victories proved decisive: the main threats to the Byzantine borderlands were eliminated, and the era of Byzantine ascendancy in the East, which would culminate in the great conquests of the 10th century, had begun.
The Byzantine success had another corollary: deliverance from the constant Arab pressure of the eastern frontier allowed the Byzantine government to concentrate on affairs in Europe, and, in particular, neighboring Bulgaria
First Bulgarian Empire
The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state founded in the north-eastern Balkans in c. 680 by the Bulgars, uniting with seven South Slavic tribes...
. The Bulgarians were pressured into accepting
Christianization of Bulgaria
The Christianization of Bulgaria was the process by which 9th-century medieval Bulgaria converted to Christianity. It was influenced by the khan's shifting political alliances with the kingdom of the East Franks and the Byzantine Empire, as well as his reception by the Pope of the Roman Catholic...
the Byzantine form of Christianity, thus ensuring that this nation would come within the Byzantine cultural sphere.
Byzantine-Arab border wars
Following the rapid Muslim conquestsMuslim conquests
Muslim conquests also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests, began with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified polity in the Arabian Peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Muslim power.They...
of the 7th century, the Byzantine Empire found itself confined to Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
, the southern coasts of the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
, and parts of Italy
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
. As Byzantium remained the Caliphate
Caliphate
The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...
's major infidel
Infidel
An infidel is one who has no religious beliefs, or who doubts or rejects the central tenets of a particular religion – especially in reference to Christianity or Islam....
enemy, Arab raids (razzias) into Asia Minor continued throughout the 8th and 9th centuries. Over time, these expeditions, launched from bases in the Arab frontier zone
Al-'Awasim
The al-'awāṣim was the Arabic term used to refer to the Muslim side of the frontier zone between the Byzantine Empire and the Ummayyad and Abbasid Caliphates in Cilicia, northern Syria and northern Mesopotamia...
on an almost annual basis, acquired a quasi-ritualized character.
During that period, the Byzantines were generally on the defensive, and suffered some catastrophic defeats such as the razing of Amorium
Sack of Amorium
The Sack of Amorium by the Abbasid Caliphate in mid-August 838 was one of the major events in the long history of the Byzantine–Arab Wars. The Abbasid campaign was led personally by the Caliph al-Mu'tasim , in retaliation to a virtually unopposed expedition launched by the Byzantine emperor...
, the home city of the reigning Byzantine dynasty, in 838. However, with the waning of the Abbasid Caliphate's power after 842 and the rise of semi-independent emirates beyond the Byzantine eastern frontier, the Byzantines were increasingly able to assert their own power.
In the 850s, the most persistent threats to the Empire were the emirate of Malatya
Malatya
Malatya ) is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of its eponymous province.-Overview:The city site has been occupied for thousands of years. The Assyrians called the city Meliddu. Following Roman expansion into the east, the city was renamed in Latin as Melitene...
(Greek: Melitene) under Omar al-Aqta, the emirate of Tarsus
Tarsus (city)
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
under Ali ibn Yahya
Ali al-Armani
Ali ibn Yahya, surnamed al-Armani , was a famed Muslim military commander of the mid-9th century.As his sobriquet indicates, Ali was of probably Armenian descent...
("Ali the Armenian"), the emirate of Qaliqala (Greek: Theodosiopolis, modern Erzurum
Erzurum
Erzurum is a city in Turkey. It is the largest city, the capital of Erzurum Province. The city is situated 1757 meters above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 361,235 in the 2000 census. .Erzurum, known as "The Rock" in NATO code, served as NATO's southeastern-most air force post during the...
) and the Paulicians of Tephrike under their leader Karbeas. Melitene, in particular, was a major threat to Byzantium as its location on the western side of the Anti-Taurus range
Anti-Taurus Mountains
Anti-Taurus is a mountain range in southern and eastern Turkey, curving northeast from the Taurus Mountains. The tallest mountain in the range is Mount Erciyes,...
allowed direct access to the Anatolian plateau. An indication of the threat posed by these states came in 860, when their combined actions turned the year into a veritable annus horribilis
Annus horribilis
Annus horribilis is a Latin phrase meaning "horrible year", or alternatively, "year of horrors". It alludes to annus mirabilis meaning "year of wonders".-Elizabeth II:...
for the Byzantines: Omar and Karbeas raided deep into Asia Minor and returned with much plunder; they were followed shortly after by another raid by the forces of Tarsus under Ali, while a naval attack from Syria sacked the major Byzantine naval base at Attaleia.
Arab invasion of 863
In the summer of 863, Omar struck again, uniting his forces with Ali for a raid into CappadociaCappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
, and it is likely that a Paulician contingent under Karbeas was present as well. According to the Byzantine history of Theophanes Continuatus
Theophanes Continuatus
Theophanes Continuatus or Scriptores post Theophanem is the Latin name commonly applied to a collection of historical writings preserved in the 11th-century Vat. gr. 167 manuscript. Its name derives from its role as the continuation, covering the years 813–961, of the chronicle of Theophanes the...
, the Arab army numbered 40,000 men. Modern estimates lower that number to ca. 20,000, but it still represented a very large army for its time. The Arabs crossed the Cilician Gates
Cilician Gates
The Cilician Gates or Gülek Pass is a pass through the Taurus Mountains connecting the low plains of Cilicia to the Anatolian Plateau, by way of the narrow gorge of the Gökoluk River. Its highest elevation is about 1000m....
into Byzantine territory, plundering as they went, until they reached a place near Tyana
Tyana
Tyana or Tyanna was an ancient city in the Anatolian region of Cappadocia, in modern south-central Turkey. It was the capital of a Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom in the 1st millennium BC.-History:...
. There, for unknown reasons, the larger army of Tarsos turned back, while the emir of Melitene decided to press on alone.
According to the contemporary Muslim historian Ya'qubi, Omar had 8,000 men at his disposal. On the Byzantine side, Emperor Michael III had assembled his army to counter the Arab raid, and met them at a battle in an area called Marj al-Usquf ("Bishop's Meadow") by Arab sources, a highland near Malakopea, north of Nazianzus
Nazianzus
Nazianzus is a Roman Catholic titular metropolitan see in the former Roman province of Cappadocia Tertia.-History:Nazianzus was a small town the history of which is completely unknown...
. The battle was bloody with many casualties on both sides; according to the Persian historian al-Tabari
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari was a prominent and influential Sunni scholar and exegete of the Qur'an from Persia...
, only a thousand of Omar's army survived. Nevertheless, the Arabs managed to evade the Byzantines and continue their raid north into the Armeniac
Armeniac Theme
The Armeniac Theme , more properly the Theme of the Armeniacs was a Byzantine theme located in northeastern Asia Minor .-History:...
theme, eventually reaching the Black Sea and sacking the port city of Amisos.
The battle
As soon as Michael learned of the fall of Amisos, he ordered a huge force to be assembled (al-Tabari gives its size at 50,000 men) under his uncle Petronas the Patrician, the stratēgosStrategos
Strategos, plural strategoi, is used in Greek to mean "general". In the Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor...
of the Thracesian Theme
Thracesian Theme
The Thracesian Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Thracesians , was a Byzantine theme in western Asia Minor , comprising the ancient regions of Ionia, Lydia and parts of Phrygia and Caria....
. Al-Tabari records that the emperor himself assumed command of these forces, but this is not supported by Byzantine sources. However, given the bias against Michael by the historians writing during the Macedonian dynasty
Macedonian dynasty
The Macedonian dynasty ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, following the Amorian dynasty. During this period, the Byzantine state reached its greatest expanse since the Muslim conquests, and the Macedonian Renaissance in letters and arts began. The dynasty was named after its founder,...
, this may be a deliberate omission. The forces assembled came from all over the Empire. Three separate armies were formed which converged upon the Arabs: a northern Byzantine force composed of the forces from the Black Sea themes of the Armeniacs, Bucellarians
Bucellarian Theme
The Bucellarian Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Bucellarians was a Byzantine theme in northern Asia Minor...
(under Nasar
Nasar
Nasar , originally baptized Basil , was a distinguished Byzantine military leader in the Byzantine–Arab conflicts of the latter half of the 9th century....
), Koloneia
Koloneia (theme)
The Theme of Koloneia was a small military-civilian province of the Byzantine Empire located in northern Cappadocia and the southern Pontus, in modern Turkey...
and Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia (theme)
The Theme of Paphlagonia was a military-civilian province of the Byzantine Empire in the namesake region along the northern coast of Anatolia, in modern Turkey.-History:...
; a southern force, probably the one that had already fought at the Bishop's Meadow and had kept shadowing the Arab army, composed from the Anatolic
Anatolic Theme
The Anatolic Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Anatolics was a Byzantine theme in central Asia Minor...
, Opsician and Cappadocian
Cappadocia (theme)
The Theme of Cappadocia was a Byzantine theme encompassing the southern portion of the namesake region from the early 9th to the late 11th centuries.-Location:...
themes, as well as the kleisourai
Kleisoura (Byzantine district)
In the Byzantine Empire, a kleisoura was a term traditionally applied to a fortified mountain pass and the military district protecting it. By the late 7th century, it came to be applied to more extensive frontier districts, distinct from the larger themata, chiefly along the Empire's eastern...
of Seleukeia and Charsianon
Charsianon
Charsianon was the name of a Byzantine fortress and the corresponding theme in the region of Cappadocia in central Anatolia .-History:...
; and the western force, under Petronas himself, comprising the men of the Macedonian, Thracian
Thrace
Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...
and the Thracesian themes and of the imperial tagmata
Tagma (military)
The tagma is a term for a military unit of battalion or regiment size. The best-known and most technical use of the term however refers to the elite regiments formed by Byzantine emperor Constantine V and comprising the central army of the Byzantine Empire in the 8th–11th centuries.-History and...
.
The coordination of all these forces was not easy, but the Byzantine armies, marching from three directions, were able to converge on the same day (2 September) and surround Omar's smaller army at a location called Poson (Greek: Πόσων) or Porson (Greek: Πόρσων) near the Lalakaon river. The exact location of the river and the battle site have not been identified; most scholars, however, agree that they lay near the river Halys, some 130 kilometres (80.8 mi) southeast of Amisos. With the approach of the Byzantine armies, the only open escape route left to the emir and his men was dominated by a strategically located hill. During the night, both Arabs and Byzantines endeavored to occupy it, but the Byzantines emerged victorious from the ensuing fight. On the next day, 3 September, Omar decided to throw his entire force towards the west, where Petronas was located, in hopes of achieving a breakthrough. The Byzantines, however, stood firm, giving the other two Byzantine wings the time to close in and attack the Arab army's exposed rear and flanks. The rout was complete, as the larger part of the Arab army and Omar himself fell on the field. Casualties also possibly included the Paulician leader Karbeas: although the latter's participation in the battle is uncertain, it is recorded that he died in that year.
Only the emir's son, at the head of a small force, managed to escape the battlefield, fleeing south towards the border area of Charsianon. He was, however, pursued by Machairas, the kleisourarchēs of Charsianon, and was defeated and captured with many of his men.
Aftermath
The Byzantines moved quickly to take advantage of their victory: a Byzantine army invaded Arab-held ArmeniaEmirate of Armenia
The Emirate of Armenia , also called the Principality of Armenia, refers to an aristocratic regime in early medieval Armenia that flourished in the period of interregnum between the seventh and ninth centuries, following the Marzpanate Period when the leading political authority was exercised by a...
, and sometime in October–November, defeated and killed the emir Ali ibn Yahya. Thus, within a single campaigning season, the Byzantines had eliminated the three most dangerous opponents on their eastern border. In retrospect, these successes proved decisive, as the battle permanently destroyed the power of Melitene. The Byzantine victory at Lalakaon altered the strategic balance in the region, and heralded the beginning of Byzantium's century-long offensive in the East.
The importance of these victories did not go unnoticed by contemporaries either: the Byzantines hailed them as revenge for the sack of Amorium 25 years earlier, the victorious generals were granted a triumphal entry into Constantinople, and special celebrations and services were held. Petronas was awarded the high court title of magistros, and Charsianon was raised to a full theme.
The removal of the eastern threat and the rise of the Byzantines' confidence also opened up opportunities in the west, where the Bulgarian ruler Boris
Boris I of Bulgaria
Boris I, also known as Boris-Mihail and Bogoris was the Knyaz of First Bulgarian Empire in 852–889. At the time of his baptism in 864, Boris was named Michael after his godfather, Emperor Michael III...
had been negotiating with the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
and Louis the German
Louis the German
Louis the German , also known as Louis II or Louis the Bavarian, was a grandson of Charlemagne and the third son of the succeeding Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye.He received the appellation 'Germanicus' shortly after his death in recognition of the fact...
for a possible conversion of himself and his pagan people to Christianity. This expansion of Rome's ecclesiastic influence up to Constantinople's very doorstep could not be tolerated by the Byzantine government. In 864, the victorious eastern armies were transferred to Europe and invaded Bulgaria, in a demonstration of military might that convinced Boris to accept Byzantine missionaries instead. Boris was baptized, taking the name Michael in honor of the emperor, thus beginning the Christianization of Bulgaria
Christianization of Bulgaria
The Christianization of Bulgaria was the process by which 9th-century medieval Bulgaria converted to Christianity. It was influenced by the khan's shifting political alliances with the kingdom of the East Franks and the Byzantine Empire, as well as his reception by the Pope of the Roman Catholic...
and ensuring that his nation would be part of the Byzantine-influenced, Eastern Orthodox world.
The battle in heroic poetry
According to the French Byzantinist Henri GrégoireHenri Grégoire (historian)
Henri Grégoire was an eminent scholar of the Byzantine Empire, virtually the founder of Byzantine studies in Belgium.Grégoire spent most of his teaching career at the Université libre de Bruxelles...
, the Byzantine success against the Arabs that culminated with the Battle of Lalakaon inspired the creation of one the oldest surviving acritic
Acritic songs
The Acritic songs are the heroic or epic poetry that emerged in the Byzantine Empire probably in the 9th century. The songs celebrated the exploits of the Akrites, the frontier guards defending the eastern borders of the Byzantine Empire. The historical background was the almost...
(heroic) poems: the Song of Armouris
Song of Armouris
The Song of Armouris or Armoures is a heroic Byzantine ballad, and probably one of the oldest surviving acritic songs, dating from the 11th century...
. Grégoire claimed that the eponymous protagonist, the young Byzantine warrior Armouris, was actually inspired by emperor Michael III.