Athabasca University
Encyclopedia
Athabasca University is a Canadian university in Athabasca, Alberta
Athabasca, Alberta
Athabasca is a town in northern Alberta, Canada. It lies north of Edmonton on Highway 2, on the banks of the Athabasca River. It is the centre of Athabasca County. Until 1913 it was known as Athabasca Landing.- History :...

. It is an accredited research institution which also offers distance education
Distance education
Distance education or distance learning is a field of education that focuses on teaching methods and technology with the aim of delivering teaching, often on an individual basis, to students who are not physically present in a traditional educational setting such as a classroom...

 courses and programs. Courses are offered primarily in English
Canadian English
Canadian English is the variety of English spoken in Canada. English is the first language, or "mother tongue", of approximately 24 million Canadians , and more than 28 million are fluent in the language...

 with some French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...

 offerings. Each year, 32,000 students attend the university. It offers opportunities for professionals to finish undergraduate, graduate and certificate programs. Canadian athletes, politicians and broadcasters have chosen Athabasca to complete their studies due to the flexibility in the university's schedule. In 2004, Athabasca's Executive MBA was rated in the top 75 by the Financial Times
Financial Times
The Financial Times is an international business newspaper. It is a morning daily newspaper published in London and printed in 24 cities around the world. Its primary rival is the Wall Street Journal, published in New York City....

, the only executive MBA on the list that is delivered entirely online.
The enabling legislation is the Post-secondary Learning Act

Origins

The university was created by the Alberta
Alberta
Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces...

 government in 1970. It grew out of the development that occurred after the University of Alberta
University of Alberta
The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the best universities in Canada...

 had long been established, and following the creation of the University of Calgary
University of Calgary
The University of Calgary is a public research university located in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1966 the U of C is composed of 14 faculties and more than 85 research institutes and centres.More than 25,000 undergraduate and 5,500 graduate students are currently...

 after legislation had been changed, and following an order in council creating the University of Lethbridge
University of Lethbridge
The University of Lethbridge is a publicly-funded comprehensive academic and research university, founded in the liberal education tradition, located in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, with two other urban campuses in Calgary and Edmonton. The main building sits among the coulees on the west side of...

.

In 1967 the Manning government
Ernest Manning
Ernest Charles Manning, , a Canadian politician, was the eighth Premier of Alberta between 1943 and 1968 for the Social Credit Party of Alberta. He served longer than any premier in the province's history, and was the second longest serving provincial premier in Canadian history...

 announced its intention to establish a fourth University, but it was later delayed by two to three years. The University of Alberta
University of Alberta
The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the best universities in Canada...

 wanted to expand rather than see another University open in Edmonton
Edmonton
Edmonton is the capital of the Canadian province of Alberta and is the province's second-largest city. Edmonton is located on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, which is surrounded by the central region of the province.The city and its census...

 to compete with it. One proposal favoured establishing a Christian university instead of a secular one to cope with rising enrollment. One early suggestion for an alternative was an "Alberta Academy" that would take credits students had earned at multiple Universities and evaluate them for transfer, and perhaps even award a degree. A department of education ad hoc group favoured the establishment of a fourth University.

A group of University of Alberta
University of Alberta
The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the best universities in Canada...

 graduates, which included Preston Manning
Preston Manning
Ernest Preston Manning, CC is a Canadian politician. He was the only leader of the Reform Party of Canada, a Canadian federal political party that evolved into the Canadian Alliance...

 helped influence the development of an independent fourth University. In 1970 Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
The Lieutenant Governor of Alberta is the viceregal representative in Alberta of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the nine other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...

 Grant MacEwan
Grant MacEwan
John Walter Grant MacEwan, best known as Grant MacEwan was a farmer, Professor at the University of Saskatchewan, Dean of Agriculture at the University of Manitoba, the 28th Mayor of Calgary and both a Member of the Legislative Assembly and the ninth Lieutenant Governor of Alberta, Canada...

 established the University by an order in council. The name for the new University was a challenge to choose, not wanting to associate the University with a city that already had a University, in a primarily rural province. Athabasca Hall a student residence at the University of Alberta
University of Alberta
The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory, its first president, it is widely recognized as one of the best universities in Canada...

 was scheduled for demolition, so the name was appropriated for the new University.

While the school is a traditional research university, it is also renowned for its distance programs. This began in 1972 when a pilot project was developed. After being considered a success, the university was granted a permanent, self-governing status in 1978. After growing too big for its location, Athabasca University moved 145 kilometres north from Edmonton to the town of Athabasca, Alberta
Athabasca, Alberta
Athabasca is a town in northern Alberta, Canada. It lies north of Edmonton on Highway 2, on the banks of the Athabasca River. It is the centre of Athabasca County. Until 1913 it was known as Athabasca Landing.- History :...

 in 1984 where it is now established. Satellite centers are in Calgary
Calgary
Calgary is a city in the Province of Alberta, Canada. It is located in the south of the province, in an area of foothills and prairie, approximately east of the front ranges of the Canadian Rockies...

 and Edmonton.

Mandate

The initial mandate for the University dictated that it be primarily undergraduate in scope. Developing new procedures in curriculum was part of the mandate for the University. The initial Governing Authority of the University had eight members, and a broad range of powers to set up the new University. July 2–3, 1970 they met for the first time, and Carl W. Clement was the first chairman. It was expected by the government of the day that by 1979 the University would have 10,000 students. September 1, 1973 was set as the target date to open.

First president

In April 1971 Tim Byrne
Tim Byrne
Tim Clarke Byrne was the first President of Athabasca University. He grew up in Warspite, Alberta. He is author of the book Athabasca University: The Evolution of Distance Education. He's a former Deputy Minister of Education for Alberta from 1966 - 1971...

 was appointed President of the new university and he assumed office in June that year.

The administration chose the Santa Cruz campus of the University of California
University of California, Santa Cruz
The University of California, Santa Cruz, also known as UC Santa Cruz or UCSC, is a public, collegiate university; one of ten campuses in the University of California...

 as its model, deciding that the individual college should serve as the basic planning unit for the new university, which would be organized as a federation of colleges.
Each of the colleges of the new university was to have 650 students and needed lecture and office space to reflect that. As well they wanted to adopt a learning approach that would have students learning in small tutorials instead of large lectures. Research within the new university was to be limited to a specified region starting around the city of Edmonton
Edmonton
Edmonton is the capital of the Canadian province of Alberta and is the province's second-largest city. Edmonton is located on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, which is surrounded by the central region of the province.The city and its census...

. One criticism was that the university was trying to do too much.

The government of Peter Lougheed
Peter Lougheed
Edgar Peter Lougheed, PC, CC, AOE, QC, is a Canadian lawyer, and a former politician and Canadian Football League player. He served as the tenth Premier of Alberta from 1971 to 1985....

 in 1971 brought a change, which included a cabinet portfolio specifically for post secondary education. The newly-elected Conservative
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta
The Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta is a provincial centre-right party in the Canadian province of Alberta...

 government was opposed to building a new University in Edmonton, but architectural plans were permitted to continue. A proposal was made to the government to test the new model for 3 – 5 years, and if that succeeded, they would become a fully independent University. This happened under the chairmanship of Merrill Wolfe. The proposal was accepted by the government.

One of the trends brought out by the new Deputy Minister of Advanced Education in the summer of 1972 was a demand for lifelong continuing education. An identified need was for an "Alberta Academy" which would evaluate University courses that were taken at multiple institutions. The academy would then award a degree. A second proposal came from the University to also serve part time students, and it would not affect the other traditional Universities already established, or the new approach of Athabasca University. An open door policy
Open Door Policy
The Open Door Policy is a concept in foreign affairs, which usually refers to the policy in 1899 allowing multiple Imperial powers access to China, with none of them in control of that country. As a theory, the Open Door Policy originates with British commercial practice, as was reflected in...

 was part of this proposal, removing admission requirements.

In 1972 a new order in council was issued to include only the new pilot project of distance education.

November 17, 2009 a revised mandate was approved by the Minister of Advanced Education and Technology. AU's mission and mandate statement are on the Athabasca University website.

First course

Trial and error procedures were used during the pilot period, as there was no model to follow in the field and mandate the staff of the university were given. In 1973 the university began to advertise for students to help with course development. A course "World Ecology" was the first course, and was the core of the pilot project. In-house production of the learning packages was important to the staff, so the university developed its own printing process.
In 1975 plans came together to reach out to students by developing field services tutors, and regional learning centres. In 1976 the first 24 part time telephone tutors were appointed. The tutor role was to facilitate learning, not teach the course. Tutors are assigned blocks of 20 - 40 students each. An unlisted toll-free number is provided to contact the tutor with. All tutors have at least a Masters degree.

An early test project for a learning resource centre had books and tapes relevant to the courses available at branches of public libraries throughout the province. Although the libraries were keen on the idea, learners preferred to remain in their homes to learn. By 1975 the median age was 35 - 40, and there were 725 students. A minority of students had only completed grade 9.
In 1975 at the end of the pilot project, an agency was appointed to evaluate the overall success. A recommendation was made to the government that the University be made a permanent member of the university system. It was to remain an open university. Under the chairmanship of Edward Checkland, the University gained permanency.

In 1976 W. A. Samuel Smith
W. A. Samuel Smith
Dr. Walter Alvah Samuel Smith, aka Samuel Smith, was the second President of Athabasca University, and in 1984 was awarded an honorary degree from that institution....

 took over as president and the university's permanency was established through an act of the Alberta Legislature.

The first collaboration the university embarked on was with Keyano College
Keyano College
Keyano College is a fully accredited comprehensive community college headquartered in Fort McMurray, in Wood Buffalo region Alberta, Canada which serves post-secondary courses and programs to communities throughout Northern Alberta through both in-classroom and distance education...

, which eventually led to the opening of a regional learning office in Fort McMurray, Alberta
Fort McMurray, Alberta
Fort McMurray is an urban service area in the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo in Alberta, Canada. It was previously incorporated as a city on September 1, 1980. It became an urban service area when it amalgamated with Improvement District No. 143 on April 1, 1995 to create the Municipality...

. North Island College in 1976 took on the challenge of delivering many courses from the university in its many campuses.
In 1985 an agreement was reached with the Correctional Service of Canada
Correctional Service of Canada
The Correctional Service of Canada , or CSC, is the Canadian federal government agency responsible for the incarceration and rehabilitation of convicted criminal offenders sentenced to two years or more...

 regarding the payment of tuition and program delivery fees related to federal inmates taking courses through the University.

Distance education

The Athabasca University Centre for Distance Education has programs which are geared to continuing education using modern communications technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...

 and have attracted students from around the world, using on-line study programs and a special dedicated website for that purpose. It is home to North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...

's first online Doctor of Education
Doctor of Education
The Doctor of Education or Doctor in Education degree , in Latin, Doctor Educationis, is a research-oriented professional doctorate that prepares the student for academic, administrative, clinical, or research positions in educational, civil, and private organizations.-Differences between an Ed.D...

 in Distance Education program, and offers a Masters of Distance Education degree, and a Graduate Diploma in Distance Education. It has ten core faculty members and contracts additional sessional faculty. Athabasca University supports the publication of the International Review of Open and Distance Education which is indexed in Social Sciences Citation Index (ISI), is arguably the most well known and most frequently cited scholarly joiunral in the filed of distance and open education

Accreditation

Athabasca University reports to the government through the Minister of Advanced Education and is publicly funded through the Province of Alberta
Alberta
Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces...

. The university's governing council is authorized to grant degrees through the Post-Secondary Learning Act along with governing its own affairs. Members of the governing council are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor
Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
The Lieutenant Governor of Alberta is the viceregal representative in Alberta of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the nine other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...

 in council.

The university is accredited with the United States by the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools
Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools
The Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools is a voluntary, peer-based, non-profit association dedicated to educational excellence and improvement through peer evaluation and accreditation...

.

Select memberships

  • Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada
    Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada
    - See also :* G13 * Association of Commonwealth Universities...

  • Association of Commonwealth Universities
    Association of Commonwealth Universities
    The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents over 480 universities from Commonwealth countries.- History :In 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire...

  • Canadian Association for Graduate Studies
  • Canadian Virtual University
    Canadian Virtual University
    Canadian Virtual University is a partnership of Canadian universities collaborating in the development and marketing of distance and online education....

  • International Council for Open and Distance Education
    International Council for Open and Distance Education
    The International Council for Open and Distance Education, or ICDE, is a global membership organisation in the field of open and distance education, and in formal consultative relations with UNESCO. It was founded in 1938 in Canada as the International Council for Correspondence Education.ICDE...

  • University of the Arctic
    University of the Arctic
    The University of the Arctic is an international cooperative network based in the circumpolar region, consisting of universities, colleges and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the North...


Academics

AU is Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

's only exclusively open University, and Maclean's Magazine called it Canada's fastest growing university. 50% of AU's students are between the ages of 25 and 44, and admissions are year round. AU plays host to 3 Canada Research Chairs. 260,000 students have taken courses since the University was founded.

AU has 27,107 undergraduate students, with 77 undergraduate programs. Of that two are university diplomas, fourteen are university certificates and one is a certificate of completion.

Research

AU spends over $2 million per year on research. The university has four Canada Research Chairs and one NSERC/Xerox/Markin/ICORE Research Chair. The Centre for Research
Athabasca University Research Centre
The Research Centre at Athabasca University is the primary organ for the University's research. They publish a document Profiles in Research to highlight their work. They also host a series of presentations called Lunch 'n' Learn, to disseminate research.-External links:**...

 is the primary centre at the university, along with the Technology Enhanced Knowledge Research Institute and the Centre for World Indigenous Knowledge and Research.

Noteworthy Faculty
  • Martin Connors, Canadian Research Chair, Space Science, discovered Trojan asteroid associated with planet Earth (2011)
  • Alvin Finkel, Professor, History, published several significant books on contemporary social and political history
  • Joseph Pivato
    Joseph Pivato
    Joseph Pivato is a Canadian writer and academic who first established the critical recognition of Italian-Canadian literature and changed our perception of Canadian writing.-Biography:...

    , Professor, Literature, published eight books on ethnic minority writing in Canada
  • Norman Temple, Professor, Food Science, published several books on health and nutrition
  • Tracey Lindberg, Canadian Research Chair, Indigenous Knowledge and Law, many publications on social and legal questions
  • Anne Nothof, Professor Emerita, English, published several books on Canadian theatre
  • Michael Gismondi, Professor, Sociology, books on environmental and social questions in Canada and Central America
  • Terry Anderson
    Terry Anderson
    Terry A. Anderson is the best known, and longest held, hostage of a group of Americans believed to be captured by Shiite Hezbollah militants in an attempt to drive U.S...

    , Professor, former Canada Research Chair, Distance Education, published seven books, articles on distance education
  • Kinshuk, Professor, Zerox Research Chair, Computer and Information Science, IEEE editor and very active research publisher

AU is also a participating member of the WestGrid
WestGrid
WestGrid is a government-funded infrastructure program started in 2003, mainly in Western Canada, that provides institutional research faculty and students access to high performance computing and distributed data storage, using a combination of grid, networking, and collaboration tools.-Principle...

 Research Network.

Rankings

In 2004, Athabasca's Executive MBA was rated in the top 75 by the Financial Times
Financial Times
The Financial Times is an international business newspaper. It is a morning daily newspaper published in London and printed in 24 cities around the world. Its primary rival is the Wall Street Journal, published in New York City....

, the only executive MBA on the list that is delivered entirely online. The EMBA has since fallen from the FT rankings, and doesn't show up in the 2009 FT rankings for EMBA. In 2005 38% of the students in the MBA program were female. AU has never been included in the annual rankings by Macleans Magazine, because of its "special mission."

In October 2008, Athabasca was named one of Alberta's Top Employers
Alberta's Top Employers
Alberta's Top Employers is a competition that recognizes the best workplaces in Alberta. Published annually since October 2005, the designation recognizes the Alberta employers that lead their peers in providing exemplary employee benefits and forward-thinking human resource programs...

 by Mediacorp Canada Inc., which was announced by the Calgary Herald
Calgary Herald
The Calgary Herald is a daily newspaper published in the Canadian city of Calgary, Alberta.- History :The paper was first published on August 31, 1883 by Andrew Armour and Thomas Braden as The Calgary Herald, Mining and Ranche Advocate and General Advertiser. It started as a weekly paper with only...

 and the Edmonton Journal
Edmonton Journal
The Edmonton Journal is a daily newspaper in Edmonton, Alberta. It is part of the Postmedia Network.-History:The Journal was founded in 1903 by three local businessmen — John Macpherson, Arthur Moore and J.W. Cunningham — as a rival to Alberta's first newspaper, the 23-year-old...

.

Delivery Models

AU's classes are taught in several ways:
  • Individual study: Students are provided with the textbooks, computer software, and video material required. A preset recommended schedule comes with each course. Each course has a professor, as with any university course. This person publishes creates a series of learning activities, readings and assessments. That publication becomes additional reading and activity for the student. Assignments are submitted to the professor via email or more commonly via the Moodle assignment drop box.. The final exam is administered by at Athabasca's learning centres or a partner university, college or accredited individual. Students have up to six months to finish their course, unless they have received a student loan, in which case, they have up to four months. Courses start at the beginning of each month. Most courses are now augmented with additional resources and activities using the Moodle LMS

  • Collaborative, online: Courses in the graduate programs are paced, usually beginning three times a year. The primary delivery platform is the Moodle Learning Management System, that is augmented by web conferencing using Adobe Connect and social networking using elgg based Athabasca Landing

  • Grouped study: Offered primarily to students physically in Alberta
    Alberta
    Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces...

    , this method allows students to get together with other students in the same course, and study in a manner similar to that of a regular university. Students studying in this method have up to 4 months to complete their course. Courses start in September and January.

Notable people


Some notable people have studied through Athabasca University, including Alberta politician Debby Carlson
Debby Carlson
Debby Carlson is a former Liberal MLA in Alberta, who represented the electoral district of Edmonton Ellerslie from 1993 to 2004.Carlson won her seat in southeast Edmonton's Ellerslie area, and held it in the 1993, 1997, and 2001 elections until 2004 when she won a highly contested federal Liberal...

, Olympic bobsleigh racer Christian Farstad
Christian Farstad
Christian Farstad is a two-time Canadian olympian in the sport of bobsleigh. He's the former CEO of Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton, former Director of Athlete and Community Relations for the Canadian Olympic Committee and is a graduate of Athabasca University...

, Alberta Premier Ralph Klein, professional hockey player Alyn McCauley
Alyn McCauley
Alyn Daniel McCauley is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player who played in the National Hockey League for ten years with the Toronto Maple Leafs, San Jose Sharks, and the Los Angeles Kings...

, and cross-country skier Milaine Thériault
Milaine Thériault
Milaine Thériault is a Canadian skier.In February, 2004 Thériault won her second consecutive women's five km free technique at the Haywood NorAm Canada Cup competition in Kelowna, British Columbia...

. The University delivers over 60,000 courses per year, and currently has more than 38,000 students.

Controversy

In May 2004 the Premier of Alberta
Premier of Alberta
The Premier of Alberta is the first minister for the Canadian province of Alberta. He or she is the province's head of government and de facto chief executive. The current Premier of Alberta is Alison Redford. She became Premier by winning the Progressive Conservative leadership elections on...

, Ralph Klein, brought public attention to the university due to allegations that he had plagiarized
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is defined in dictionaries as the "wrongful appropriation," "close imitation," or "purloining and publication" of another author's "language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions," and the representation of them as one's own original work, but the notion remains problematic with nebulous...

 a paper that he submitted for a communication studies course he took from the school. While speaking before the provincial legislature, he held up a copy of the paper to provide evidence on his views about former Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...

an dictator General Augusto Pinochet
Augusto Pinochet
Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte, more commonly known as Augusto Pinochet , was a Chilean army general and dictator who assumed power in a coup d'état on 11 September 1973...

. Afterwards, there was public criticism that portions of five pages of the 13-page paper had been copied from the Internet without proper citations to the sources. The university investigated the matter and told the news media that Klein's instructor had noted the mistake when grading the paper and offered guidance for correcting it. A university spokesman described the failure to properly cite sources as a "relatively minor error, undisputed by [the] student, easily corrected, and not an ongoing or repeated problem."

Undergrad students

Undergraduate students at Athabasca University are represented by the Athabasca University Students' Union. The AUSU head office is in AU Edmonton, though the students' council may have elected members from any area where AU students reside.

AUSU was formed in 1993 and was formalized as a registered Alberta society until students' unions in Alberta were granted recognition under the Post-Secondary Learning Act. On 13 September 2004 the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta approved an order in council which states:
AUSU has established several clubs for students. Clubs currently sponsored by AUSU include the AU Health Sciences Society, La Société Française d'AU, the AU Literature Club, AU Business Students’ Association, AU Science Students' Society, AU Sports Club, and the AU Student Moms' Club. Student media at Athabasca University is provided by the official publication The Voice Magazine. Previously published on paper, the magazine since 2001 is published exclusively online in HTML and PDF format.

Graduate students

Visiting and program students at the graduate level are represented by the Athabasca University Graduate Students' Association. The organization was founded in 2010, and approved by the Alberta Advanced Education and Technology.

See also

  • List of universities in the Canadian Prairies
  • Higher education in Alberta
    Higher education in Alberta
    Higher education in Alberta refers to the post secondary education system for the province of Alberta. The Ministry of Advanced Education & Technology in Alberta oversees educational delivery through universities, publicly funded colleges, technical institutions, and private colleges. These...

  • Canadian government scientific research organizations
    Canadian government scientific research organizations
    Expenditures by federal and provincial organizations on scientific research and development accounted for about 10% of all such spending in Canada in 2006...

  • Canadian university scientific research organizations
    Canadian university scientific research organizations
    Expenditures by Canadian universities on scientific research and development accounted for about 40% of all spending on scientific research and development in Canada in 2006....

  • Canadian industrial research and development organizations
    Canadian industrial research and development organizations
    Expenditures by Canadian corporations on research and development accounted for about 50% of all spending on scientific research and development in Canada in 2007....


Further reading

  • Small, Michael W. "A Case Study of Educational Policy-making: The Establishment of Athabasca University." Ph.D. diss., University of Alberta, 1980.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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