American Century
Encyclopedia
American Century is a term used to describe the United States
' dominance of much of the 20th century, in political, economic and cultural terms. The United States' influence grew throughout the 20th century, but became especially dominant after the end of World War II
, when only two superpower
s remained, the United States and the Soviet Union
. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union
in 1991, the United States remained the world's only superpower, became the hegemon, or what some have termed a hyperpower
.
publisher Henry Luce
used to claim the historical role of the United States
during the 20th century.
Henry Luce, the son of a missionary, in a February 17, 1941 Life
magazine editorial urged the United States to forsake isolationism
for a missionary's role, acting as the world's Good Samaritan and spreading democracy
. He called upon the U.S. to enter World War II
to defend democratic values:
According to David Harvey
, Luce believed "the power conferred was global and universal rather than territorially specific, so Luce preferred to talk of an American century rather than an empire." In the same article he called upon United States "to exert upon the world the full impact of our influence, for such purposes as we see fit and by such means as we see fit."
, the United States played an important role in the world. The United States lost its mostly pacific (with only regional conflicts as the Mexican-American War as exceptions) and regionally-bounded nature towards the end of the 19th Century. The government adopted protectionism
after Spanish-American War and built up a powerful navy, the "Great White Fleet
", to expand the reach of her power. When Theodore Roosevelt became President
in 1901, he accelerated a foreign policy shift away from isolationism towards foreign intervention which had begun under his predecessor, William McKinley
. The Philippine Revolution
arose as response to this new political hegemony, culminating on the Philippine-American War
. Interventionism found its formal articulation in the 1904 Roosevelt Corollary
to the Monroe Doctrine, proclaiming a right for the United States to intervene to stabilize weak states in the Americas, a moment that underlined the emergent U.S. regional hegemony
.
The United States also played an important role in the World Wars era (encompassing World War I
and World War II
).
represents the relative liberal peace in the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America starting around the turn of the 20th century. Although the term finds its primary utility in the late 20th Century, it has been used in other times in the 20th century. Its modern connotations concern the peace established after the end of World War II in 1945.
and demonstrated the status of the United States as one of the world's two superpower
s. After the Cold War, the most common belief held that only the United States fulfilled the criteria to be considered a superpower. America's geographic area composed the fourth largest country in the world, with an area of approximately 9.37 million km². America's demographic exhibited a population of 248.7 million in 1990, at that time the fourth largest on Earth.
Regarding the Mid-to-Late-20th Century characteristics, America's political status was a strong capitalist federation
/constitutional republic
. America had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council plus two allies with permanent seats. America had strong ties with Western Europe, Latin America, British Commonwealth, and several East Asian countries. America wielded influence by supporting right-wing dictatorships in undeveloped countries and democracies in developed countries.
Though, the term American Century refers not only to the political influence of the United States. As to the United States' economic influence, many states around the world would over the course of the 20th century adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus
. America's economic force was powerful at the end of the century due to America being by far the largest economy in the world. America had large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber, a large and modernized farming industry and large industrial base. U.S. Dollar
was the dominant world reserve currency
under Bretton Woods
. American systems were rooted in the western economic theory based on supply and demand: production determined by customers' demands. America was allied with G7 major economies. American economic policy prescriptions were the "standard" reform packages promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries
by Washington, DC-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Bank
and the US Treasury Department.
America's military strength was an essentially naval-based advanced military with the highest military expenditure in the world. America had the world's largest navy with largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world, particularly in an incomplete "ring" bordering the Warsaw Pact to the West, South and East. America had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War. America had one of the largest armies in the world. America had one of the two largest air forces in the world. America's powerful military allies in Western Europe (NATO) had their own nuclear capabilities. America possessed a global Intelligence network (CIA).
America's cultural impact is seen in the influence of music, TV, films, art, and fashion, as well as freedom of speech and other guaranteed rights for residents. American pop stars such as Elvis Presley
, Michael Jackson
, and Madonna
have become global celebrities.
missionary zeal." Others have noted the end of the 20th Century and the American Century, most famously the late gonzo
journalist Hunter S. Thompson
who titled his autobiography Kingdom Of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of A Star Crossed Child in the Last Days of the American Century.
With the advent of the new millennium
, critics have stated that it is a matter of debate whether America's influence is leading it to be a hegemon
or if it is losing its superpower status.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
' dominance of much of the 20th century, in political, economic and cultural terms. The United States' influence grew throughout the 20th century, but became especially dominant after the end of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, when only two superpower
Superpower
A superpower is a state with a dominant position in the international system which has the ability to influence events and its own interests and project power on a worldwide scale to protect those interests...
s remained, the United States and the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union was the disintegration of the federal political structures and central government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , resulting in the independence of all fifteen republics of the Soviet Union between March 11, 1990 and December 25, 1991...
in 1991, the United States remained the world's only superpower, became the hegemon, or what some have termed a hyperpower
Hyperpower
A hyperpower is a state that dominates all other states in every sphere of activity. A hyperpower is traditionally considered to be one step higher than a superpower. The definition and use of the term varies....
.
Term origin
The term was coined by TimeTime (magazine)
Time is an American news magazine. A European edition is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong...
publisher Henry Luce
Henry Luce
Henry Robinson Luce was an influential American publisher. He launched and closely supervised a stable of magazines that transformed journalism and the reading habits of upscale Americans...
used to claim the historical role of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
during the 20th century.
Henry Luce, the son of a missionary, in a February 17, 1941 Life
Life (magazine)
Life generally refers to three American magazines:*A humor and general interest magazine published from 1883 to 1936. Time founder Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936 solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name....
magazine editorial urged the United States to forsake isolationism
Isolationism
Isolationism is the policy or doctrine of isolating one's country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, international agreements, etc., seeking to devote the entire efforts of one's country to its own advancement and remain at peace by...
for a missionary's role, acting as the world's Good Samaritan and spreading democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
. He called upon the U.S. to enter World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
to defend democratic values:
Throughout the 17th century and the 18th century and the 19th century, this continent teemed with manifold projects and magnificent purposes. Above them all and weaving them all together into the most exciting flag of all the world and of all history was the triumphal purpose of freedom.
It is in this spirit that all of us are called, each to his own measure of capacity, and each in the widest horizon of his vision, to create the first great American Century.
According to David Harvey
David Harvey
David Harvey is the name of:*David Harvey *David Harvey , geographer and social theorist*David Harvey , American luthier...
, Luce believed "the power conferred was global and universal rather than territorially specific, so Luce preferred to talk of an American century rather than an empire." In the same article he called upon United States "to exert upon the world the full impact of our influence, for such purposes as we see fit and by such means as we see fit."
Early characteristics
Beginning with the Spanish-American WarSpanish-American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...
, the United States played an important role in the world. The United States lost its mostly pacific (with only regional conflicts as the Mexican-American War as exceptions) and regionally-bounded nature towards the end of the 19th Century. The government adopted protectionism
Protectionism
Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between states through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations designed to allow "fair competition" between imports and goods and services produced domestically.This...
after Spanish-American War and built up a powerful navy, the "Great White Fleet
Great White Fleet
The Great White Fleet was the popular nickname for the United States Navy battle fleet that completed a circumnavigation of the globe from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909 by order of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. It consisted of 16 battleships divided into two squadrons, along with...
", to expand the reach of her power. When Theodore Roosevelt became President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
in 1901, he accelerated a foreign policy shift away from isolationism towards foreign intervention which had begun under his predecessor, William McKinley
William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. was the 25th President of the United States . He is best known for winning fiercely fought elections, while supporting the gold standard and high tariffs; he succeeded in forging a Republican coalition that for the most part dominated national politics until the 1930s...
. The Philippine Revolution
Philippine Revolution
The Philippine Revolution , called the "Tagalog War" by the Spanish, was an armed military conflict between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities which resulted in the secession of the Philippine Islands from the Spanish Empire.The Philippine Revolution began in August...
arose as response to this new political hegemony, culminating on the Philippine-American War
Philippine-American War
The Philippine–American War, also known as the Philippine War of Independence or the Philippine Insurrection , was an armed conflict between a group of Filipino revolutionaries and the United States which arose from the struggle of the First Philippine Republic to gain independence following...
. Interventionism found its formal articulation in the 1904 Roosevelt Corollary
Roosevelt Corollary
-Background:In late 1902, Britain, Germany, and Italy implemented a naval blockade of several months against Venezuela because of President Cipriano Castro's refusal to pay foreign debts and damages suffered by European citizens in a recent Venezuelan civil war. The incident was called the...
to the Monroe Doctrine, proclaiming a right for the United States to intervene to stabilize weak states in the Americas, a moment that underlined the emergent U.S. regional hegemony
Hegemony
Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...
.
The United States also played an important role in the World Wars era (encompassing World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
).
Pax Americana
Pax AmericanaPax Americana
Pax Americana is an appellation applied to the historical concept of relative peace in the Western hemisphere and, later, the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America starting around the turn of the 20th century...
represents the relative liberal peace in the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America starting around the turn of the 20th century. Although the term finds its primary utility in the late 20th Century, it has been used in other times in the 20th century. Its modern connotations concern the peace established after the end of World War II in 1945.
Post-1945 characteristics
The American Century existed through the Cold WarCold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
and demonstrated the status of the United States as one of the world's two superpower
Superpower
A superpower is a state with a dominant position in the international system which has the ability to influence events and its own interests and project power on a worldwide scale to protect those interests...
s. After the Cold War, the most common belief held that only the United States fulfilled the criteria to be considered a superpower. America's geographic area composed the fourth largest country in the world, with an area of approximately 9.37 million km². America's demographic exhibited a population of 248.7 million in 1990, at that time the fourth largest on Earth.
Regarding the Mid-to-Late-20th Century characteristics, America's political status was a strong capitalist federation
Federation
A federation , also known as a federal state, is a type of sovereign state characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central government...
/constitutional republic
Constitutional republic
A constitutional republic is a state in which the head of state and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over all of its citizens...
. America had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council plus two allies with permanent seats. America had strong ties with Western Europe, Latin America, British Commonwealth, and several East Asian countries. America wielded influence by supporting right-wing dictatorships in undeveloped countries and democracies in developed countries.
Though, the term American Century refers not only to the political influence of the United States. As to the United States' economic influence, many states around the world would over the course of the 20th century adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus
Washington Consensus
The term Washington Consensus was coined in 1989 by the economist John Williamson to describe a set of ten relatively specific economic policy prescriptions that he considered constituted the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries...
. America's economic force was powerful at the end of the century due to America being by far the largest economy in the world. America had large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber, a large and modernized farming industry and large industrial base. U.S. Dollar
United States dollar
The United States dollar , also referred to as the American dollar, is the official currency of the United States of America. It is divided into 100 smaller units called cents or pennies....
was the dominant world reserve currency
Reserve currency
A reserve currency, or anchor currency, is a currency that is held in significant quantities by many governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves...
under Bretton Woods
Bretton Woods system
The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states in the mid 20th century...
. American systems were rooted in the western economic theory based on supply and demand: production determined by customers' demands. America was allied with G7 major economies. American economic policy prescriptions were the "standard" reform packages promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries
Developing country
A developing country, also known as a less-developed country, is a nation with a low level of material well-being. Since no single definition of the term developing country is recognized internationally, the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries...
by Washington, DC-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
(IMF), World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
and the US Treasury Department.
America's military strength was an essentially naval-based advanced military with the highest military expenditure in the world. America had the world's largest navy with largest number of aircraft carriers, bases all over the world, particularly in an incomplete "ring" bordering the Warsaw Pact to the West, South and East. America had the largest nuclear arsenal in the world during the first half of the Cold War. America had one of the largest armies in the world. America had one of the two largest air forces in the world. America's powerful military allies in Western Europe (NATO) had their own nuclear capabilities. America possessed a global Intelligence network (CIA).
America's cultural impact is seen in the influence of music, TV, films, art, and fashion, as well as freedom of speech and other guaranteed rights for residents. American pop stars such as Elvis Presley
Elvis Presley
Elvis Aaron Presley was one of the most popular American singers of the 20th century. A cultural icon, he is widely known by the single name Elvis. He is often referred to as the "King of Rock and Roll" or simply "the King"....
, Michael Jackson
Michael Jackson
Michael Joseph Jackson was an American recording artist, entertainer, and businessman. Referred to as the King of Pop, or by his initials MJ, Jackson is recognized as the most successful entertainer of all time by Guinness World Records...
, and Madonna
Madonna (entertainer)
Madonna is an American singer-songwriter, actress and entrepreneur. Born in Bay City, Michigan, she moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance. After performing in the music groups Breakfast Club and Emmy, she released her debut album in 1983...
have become global celebrities.
Criticism
Critics have condemned Luce's "jingoisticJingoism
Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. In practice, it is a country's advocation of the use of threats or actual force against other countries in order to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests...
missionary zeal." Others have noted the end of the 20th Century and the American Century, most famously the late gonzo
Gonzo journalism
Gonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word "gonzo" is believed to be first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style...
journalist Hunter S. Thompson
Hunter S. Thompson
Hunter Stockton Thompson was an American journalist and author who wrote The Rum Diary , Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72 .He is credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of reporting where reporters involve themselves in the action to...
who titled his autobiography Kingdom Of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of A Star Crossed Child in the Last Days of the American Century.
With the advent of the new millennium
Millennium
A millennium is a period of time equal to one thousand years —from the Latin phrase , thousand, and , year—often but not necessarily related numerically to a particular dating system....
, critics have stated that it is a matter of debate whether America's influence is leading it to be a hegemon
Hegemony
Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...
or if it is losing its superpower status.
See also
- American Empire
- New World OrderNew World OrderNew World Order, New world order or The New World Order may refer to:*New world order , any period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power...
- Pax AmericanaPax AmericanaPax Americana is an appellation applied to the historical concept of relative peace in the Western hemisphere and, later, the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America starting around the turn of the 20th century...
- Project for the New American CenturyProject for the New American CenturyThe Project for the New American Century was an American think tank based in Washington, D.C. that lasted from 1997 to 2006. It was co-founded as a non-profit educational organization by neoconservatives William Kristol and Robert Kagan...
External articles
- Henry LuceHenry LuceHenry Robinson Luce was an influential American publisher. He launched and closely supervised a stable of magazines that transformed journalism and the reading habits of upscale Americans...
, The American Century, Life Magazine (February 17, 1941) - Andrew BacevichAndrew BacevichAndrew J. Bacevich, Sr. is a professor of international relations at Boston University and a retired career officer in the United States Army...
, Farewell to the American Century, Salon.comSalon.comSalon.com, part of Salon Media Group , often just called Salon, is an online liberal magazine, with content updated each weekday. Salon was founded by David Talbot and launched on November 20, 1995. It was the internet's first online-only commercial publication. The magazine focuses on U.S...
(April 30, 2009) - Terry Michael, The End of the American Century, Reason (February 16, 2011)
- The Unmaking of a Company Man By Andrew Bacevich
Further reading
- Michael J. Hogan, The Ambiguous Legacy: U.S. Foreign Relations in The "American Century" (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999). A symposium of scholarly articles assessing aspects of Luce's editorial and its significance originally published in Diplomatic History 23.2 (1999).