Agroecosystem analysis
Encyclopedia
Agroecosystem analysis is a thorough analysis of an agricultural environment which considers aspects from ecology
, sociology
, economics
, and politics
with equal weight. There are many aspects to consider; however, it is literally impossible to account for all of them. This is one of the issues when trying to conduct an analysis of an agricultural environment. In the past, an agroecosystem analysis approach might be used to determine the sustainability
of an agricultural system. It has become apparent, however, that the "sustainability" of the system depends heavily on the definition of sustainability chosen by the observer. Therefore, agroecosystem analysis is used to bring the richness of the true complexity of agricultural systems to an analysis to identify reconfigurations of the system (or holon) that will best suit individual situations.
Agroecosystem
analysis is a tool of the multidisciplinary subject known as Agroecology
. Agroecology and agroecosystem analysis are not the same as sustainable agriculture
, though the use of agroecosystem analysis may help a farming system ensure its viability. Agroecosystem analysis is not a new practice, agriculturalists and farmers have been doing it since societies switched from hunting and gathering (hunter-gatherer
) for food to settling in one area. Every time a person involved in agriculture evaluates their situation to identify methods to make the system function in a way that better suits their interests, they are performing an agroecosystem analysis.
, developed the idea of a farm as a Holon (philosophy)
This term, holon, was originally introduced by Arthur Koestler
in 1966, in which he referred to a holon as an entity in which it is a part by itself, a holon, while contributing to a larger entity, which is also a holon. Bland develops this for an agricultural environment or farm
as, "The farm holon is both the whole in which smaller holons exists, and a part of larger entities, themselves holons." This idea was expanded upon by Bland and Michael M. Bell University of Wisconsin–Madison
in their 2007 article "A holon approach to agroecology," because it is difficult to account for boundary and change when using a systems thinking
approach. One major difference between Koestler's holon and the holon idea developed for agroecosystem analysis is that the latter can only be defined as a holon if it has intentionality
.
The farm itself is a holon and within the farm
holon, other holons exist. For example, a farm animal, the farm family
, and a farmworker
can all be considered holons within the farm. Additionally, the farm is considered a holon which is inpart connected to other holons such as the county
in which the farm
resides, the bank
from which the farmer
borrowed money, or the grain elevator
where the farmer
can sell goods. Things like the tractor
or the barn
are not holons because they lack intentionality
.
When conducting an agroecosystem analysis, the analyst should approach the farm
as the farm
itself and the "ecology of contexts
" in which the farm and the farmer function. A "context" is anything that might influence functioning of the farm and cause it to change. According to Bland and Bell, examples of contexts include, "family, farm business, genetic heart disease, and spiritual beliefs." These examples illustrate the breadth of contexts that could influence why farmers do what they do. Bland concluded his model of a farm
as a holon by stating, "A farm is not sustainable (disintegrates) when it cannot find an overall configuration that is simultaneously viable in all contexts."
These are the types of questions an analyst could consider. There are no preset questions to ask, and usually more questions are derived than answered. However, the most important task an analysts can do, is to start the analysis with an open mind and under no presumptions about what is and is not sustainable for the farm holon.
; however, it is a useful tool to reference when starting to analyze an agroecoystem. His interest is to create a functioning wheel which will roll when all parameters are met equally. If one parameter is not functioning in context with the other parameters, then the wheel will be out of balance and ineffective, thus unsustainable. When referring to an agroecosystem
, if one parameter is out of balance, this could lead to an unproductive cropping season and loss of income and/or livelihood.
| Agroecology
| agroecosystem
| Agronomy
| Applied ecology
| Ecology
| Ecology of contexts
| Environmental Economics
| Holon (philosophy)
| Political Science
| Sociology
| Soil Science
| Sustainable Agriculture
| Rural Sociology
|
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
, sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, and politics
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
with equal weight. There are many aspects to consider; however, it is literally impossible to account for all of them. This is one of the issues when trying to conduct an analysis of an agricultural environment. In the past, an agroecosystem analysis approach might be used to determine the sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
of an agricultural system. It has become apparent, however, that the "sustainability" of the system depends heavily on the definition of sustainability chosen by the observer. Therefore, agroecosystem analysis is used to bring the richness of the true complexity of agricultural systems to an analysis to identify reconfigurations of the system (or holon) that will best suit individual situations.
Agroecosystem
Agroecosystem
An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study for an agroecologist, and is somewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit as well as their interactions.An agroecosystem can be...
analysis is a tool of the multidisciplinary subject known as Agroecology
Agroecology
Agroecology is the application of ecological principles to the production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term encompasses a broad range of approaches, and is considered "a science, a movement, [and] a practice."...
. Agroecology and agroecosystem analysis are not the same as sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment...
, though the use of agroecosystem analysis may help a farming system ensure its viability. Agroecosystem analysis is not a new practice, agriculturalists and farmers have been doing it since societies switched from hunting and gathering (hunter-gatherer
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
) for food to settling in one area. Every time a person involved in agriculture evaluates their situation to identify methods to make the system function in a way that better suits their interests, they are performing an agroecosystem analysis.
Agroecosystem analysis and sustainable agriculture differ
It is difficult to discuss these differences without the aid of an example. Consider the case of a conventional (see conventional agriculture) apple farmer. This farmer may choose to change his farm to conform to the standards of USDA approved organic agriculture because he felt motivated by social or moral norms or the potential of increased profits or a host of other reasons. This farmer evaluated his situation and reconfigured it to try to improve it. Some might look at this situation and conclude that the apple farmer chose organic apple production because it is more sustainable for the environment. But, what if a few years later the farmer finds that he is struggling to make a profit and decides to go back to conventional agriculture? The farmer performed another agroecosystem analysis and arrived at a reconfiguration that some might see as unsustainable. This example illustrates how agroecosystem analysis is not required to lead a more environmentally sustainable form of agriculture. Agroecosystem analysis might produce a reconfiguration that is more economically sustainable or socially sustainable or politically sustainable for a farmer (or other actor). By definition, however, agroecosystem analysis is not required to produce an environmentally sustainable configuration for an agricultural system.Approach to analysis
William L. Bland, from the University of Wisconsin–MadisonUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison
The University of Wisconsin–Madison is a public research university located in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1848, UW–Madison is the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin System. It became a land-grant institution in 1866...
, developed the idea of a farm as a Holon (philosophy)
Holon (philosophy)
A holon is something that is simultaneously a whole and a part. The word was coined by Arthur Koestler in his book The Ghost in the Machine . Koestler was compelled by two observations in proposing the notion of the holon...
This term, holon, was originally introduced by Arthur Koestler
Arthur Koestler
Arthur Koestler CBE was a Hungarian author and journalist. Koestler was born in Budapest and, apart from his early school years, was educated in Austria...
in 1966, in which he referred to a holon as an entity in which it is a part by itself, a holon, while contributing to a larger entity, which is also a holon. Bland develops this for an agricultural environment or farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
as, "The farm holon is both the whole in which smaller holons exists, and a part of larger entities, themselves holons." This idea was expanded upon by Bland and Michael M. Bell University of Wisconsin–Madison
University of Wisconsin–Madison
The University of Wisconsin–Madison is a public research university located in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1848, UW–Madison is the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin System. It became a land-grant institution in 1866...
in their 2007 article "A holon approach to agroecology," because it is difficult to account for boundary and change when using a systems thinking
Systems thinking
Systems thinking is the process of understanding how things influence one another within a whole. In nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants, and animals work together to survive or perish...
approach. One major difference between Koestler's holon and the holon idea developed for agroecosystem analysis is that the latter can only be defined as a holon if it has intentionality
Intentionality
The term intentionality was introduced by Jeremy Bentham as a principle of utility in his doctrine of consciousness for the purpose of distinguishing acts that are intentional and acts that are not...
.
The farm itself is a holon and within the farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
holon, other holons exist. For example, a farm animal, the farm family
Family
In human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
, and a farmworker
Farmworker
A farmworker is a person hired to work in the agricultural industry. This includes work on farms of all sizes, from small, family-run businesses to large industrial agriculture operations...
can all be considered holons within the farm. Additionally, the farm is considered a holon which is inpart connected to other holons such as the county
County
A county is a jurisdiction of local government in certain modern nations. Historically in mainland Europe, the original French term, comté, and its equivalents in other languages denoted a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of a count A county is a jurisdiction of local government in certain...
in which the farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
resides, the bank
Bank
A bank is a financial institution that serves as a financial intermediary. The term "bank" may refer to one of several related types of entities:...
from which the farmer
Farmer
A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, who raises living organisms for food or raw materials, generally including livestock husbandry and growing crops, such as produce and grain...
borrowed money, or the grain elevator
Grain elevator
A grain elevator is a tower containing a bucket elevator, which scoops up, elevates, and then uses gravity to deposit grain in a silo or other storage facility...
where the farmer
Farmer
A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, who raises living organisms for food or raw materials, generally including livestock husbandry and growing crops, such as produce and grain...
can sell goods. Things like the tractor
Tractor
A tractor is a vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction...
or the barn
Barn
A barn is an agricultural building used for storage and as a covered workplace. It may sometimes be used to house livestock or to store farming vehicles and equipment...
are not holons because they lack intentionality
Intentionality
The term intentionality was introduced by Jeremy Bentham as a principle of utility in his doctrine of consciousness for the purpose of distinguishing acts that are intentional and acts that are not...
.
When conducting an agroecosystem analysis, the analyst should approach the farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
as the farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
itself and the "ecology of contexts
Ecology of contexts
The ecology of contexts is a term used in many disciplines and refers to the dynamic interplay of contexts and demands that constrain and define an entity.-Environmental ecology:...
" in which the farm and the farmer function. A "context" is anything that might influence functioning of the farm and cause it to change. According to Bland and Bell, examples of contexts include, "family, farm business, genetic heart disease, and spiritual beliefs." These examples illustrate the breadth of contexts that could influence why farmers do what they do. Bland concluded his model of a farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
as a holon by stating, "A farm is not sustainable (disintegrates) when it cannot find an overall configuration that is simultaneously viable in all contexts."
Questions to consider
There is no right or wrong way to evaluate an agroecosystem. It is important to identify all actors in a holon before beginning the analysis. When an analyst accepts the task of analyzing the agroecosystem, first and foremost, it must be approached as to incorporate all elements involved and should derive questions that should be answered. Questions such as:- What defining factors (holons and contexts) determine the present configuration of the agroecosystem?
- How does one quantify the sustainability of the farm holon (economic, social, political, ecological and/or other)?
- How does the farmer or farm family perceive an agroecosystem?
- What is the farmer doing now, and how do those practices or actions affect the viability of the agroecosystem?
- Can the farmer maintain his livelihood continuing with current practices?
- What does the farmer value and where do those values come from?
- Will the farmer consider alternative farm configurations?
These are the types of questions an analyst could consider. There are no preset questions to ask, and usually more questions are derived than answered. However, the most important task an analysts can do, is to start the analysis with an open mind and under no presumptions about what is and is not sustainable for the farm holon.
Analysis types
J. Visser of Dordt College uses a diagram, "Wealth Creation Wheel" to emphasize and account for the parameters of developing a thorough analysis. His diagram is more emphasized on economicsEconomics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
; however, it is a useful tool to reference when starting to analyze an agroecoystem. His interest is to create a functioning wheel which will roll when all parameters are met equally. If one parameter is not functioning in context with the other parameters, then the wheel will be out of balance and ineffective, thus unsustainable. When referring to an agroecosystem
Agroecosystem
An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study for an agroecologist, and is somewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit as well as their interactions.An agroecosystem can be...
, if one parameter is out of balance, this could lead to an unproductive cropping season and loss of income and/or livelihood.
Further reading
- Ahl, V. & Allen, T. F. H. (1996) Hierarchy Theory: A Vision, Vocabulary, and Epistemology. Columbia University Press, New York.
- Allen, T. F. H. & Starr, T. B. (1982) Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Allen, T. F. H. Tainter, J. A. Pires, J. C. & Hoekstra, T. W. (2001) Dragnet Ecology-- "Just the Facts Ma'am":The Privilege of Science in a Postmodern World. BioScience 51, 475-485.
- Aristotle (1987) A New Aristotle Reader. Edited by J. L. Ackrill. Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
- Bakhtin, M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. University of Texas, Austin, TX.
- Bland, B. 2005. A framework for enquiry into agricultural systems.
- Checkland, P. & Scholes, J. (1999) Soft Systems Methodology in Action, Including Soft Systems Methodology: A 30-Year Retrospective. Wiley, New York.
- Conway, G. 1990. Concepts. Ch 2. In Agroecosystem analysis for research and concepts. Winrock Int. Inst. for Agriculture. Morrilton, AK.
- Cronon, W. (1992) A Place for Stories: Nature, History and Narrative. Journal of American History 78, 1347-1376.
- Francis, C. 2005. Cobweb polygons (spider diagrams) for visual display of sustainability
- Gell-Mann, M. (1994) The Quark and the Jaguar. W. H. Freeman, New York, NY.
- Gell-Mann, M. (1995) Complex Adaptive Systems. In: H. Morowitz & J. Singer (eds.) The Mind, the Brain, and Complex Adaptive Systems, pp. 11–23. Addison-Wesley, New York, NY.
- Gliessman, S. 2004. Chapter 2, Agroecology and agroecosystems. In D. Rickerl and C. Francis, (ed.) Agroecosystems Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
- Gliessman, S. R. (2004) Agroecology and Agroecosystems. In: D. Rickerl & C. Francis (eds.) Agroecosystem Analysis, pp. 19–29. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
- Kirschenmann, F. Chapter 11, Ecological morality: a new ethic for agriculture. In D. Rickerl and C. Francis, (ed.) Agroecosystems Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
- Peart, R. M. & Shoup, W. D. (2004) Agricultural Systems Management: Optimizing Efficiency and Performance. Marcel Dekker, New York.
- Rosen, R. (1991) Life Itself: A Comprehensive Inquiry into the Nature, Origin, and Foundation of Life. Columbia University Press, New York.
- Rosen, R. (2000) Essays on Life Itself. Columbia University Press, New York.
- Spedding, C. R. W. (1988) An Introduction to Agricultural Systems. Elsevier Applied Science, New York.
- Vayda, A. P. (1986) Holism and Individualism in Ecological Anthropology. Reviews in Anthropology 13, 295-313.
- Vissar, J. 2000. Wealth Creation Wheel.
- Wojtkowski, P.A. 2008. Agroecological Economics: Sustainability and Biodiversity. Elsevier Publishing, NY.
External links
See also
AgricultureAgriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
| Agroecology
Agroecology
Agroecology is the application of ecological principles to the production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term encompasses a broad range of approaches, and is considered "a science, a movement, [and] a practice."...
| agroecosystem
Agroecosystem
An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study for an agroecologist, and is somewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living and nonliving components involved in that unit as well as their interactions.An agroecosystem can be...
| Agronomy
Agronomy
Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation. Agronomy encompasses work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is the application of a combination of sciences like biology,...
| Applied ecology
Applied ecology
Applied ecology is a subfield within ecology, which considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world questions. It is an integrated treatment of the ecological, social, and biotechnological aspects of natural resource conservation and management. It is also called ecological or...
| Ecology
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
| Ecology of contexts
Ecology of contexts
The ecology of contexts is a term used in many disciplines and refers to the dynamic interplay of contexts and demands that constrain and define an entity.-Environmental ecology:...
| Environmental Economics
Environmental economics
Environmental economics is a subfield of economics concerned with environmental issues. Quoting from the National Bureau of Economic Research Environmental Economics program:...
| Holon (philosophy)
Holon (philosophy)
A holon is something that is simultaneously a whole and a part. The word was coined by Arthur Koestler in his book The Ghost in the Machine . Koestler was compelled by two observations in proposing the notion of the holon...
| Political Science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
| Sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
| Soil Science
Soil science
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.Sometimes terms which...
| Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment...
| Rural Sociology
Rural sociology
Rural sociology is a field of sociology associated with the study of social life in non-metropolitan areas. It is the scientific study of social arrangements and behaviour amongst people distanced from points of concentrated population or economic activity...
|