Water supply and sanitation in Iran
Encyclopedia
| Iran Iran Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia... : Water and Sanitation |
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!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Data
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!align="left" valign="top"|Water coverage (broad definition)
|valign="top"| 99% in urban areas
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!align="left" valign="top"|Sanitation coverage (narrow definition)
|valign="top"| 19% in urban areas
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!align="left" valign="top"|Continuity of supply (%)
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Average urban water use (l/c/d)
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Average urban water tariff (US$/m3)
|valign="top"| US$ 0.06/m3 (2002)
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!align="left" valign="top"|Share of household metering
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Annual investment in WSS
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Share of self-financing by utilities
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Share of tax-financing
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="left" valign="top"|Share of external financing
|valign="top"| n/a
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!align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Institutions
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!align="left" valign="top"|Decentralization
|valign="top"| Partial, at provincial level
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!align="left" valign="top"|National water and sanitation company
|valign="top"| Not for service provision
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!align="left" valign="top"|Water and sanitation regulator
|valign="top"| None
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!align="left" valign="top"|Responsibility for policy setting
|valign="top"| Ministry of Energy (Iran)
Ministry of Energy (Iran)
Ministry of Energy of Iran , is the main organ of the Government in charge of the regulation and implementation of policies applicable to energy, electricity, water and wasterewater services....
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!align="left" valign="top"|Sector law
|valign="top"| Yes
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!align="left" valign="top"|Number of urban service providers
|valign="top"| 30
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!align="left" valign="top"|Number of rural service providers
|valign="top"| 30
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Water supply and sanitation in Iran has witnessed some important improvements, especially in terms of increased access to urban water supply, while important challenges remain, particularly concerning sanitation and service provision in rural areas.
Institutionally, the Ministry of Energy
Ministry of Energy (Iran)
Ministry of Energy of Iran , is the main organ of the Government in charge of the regulation and implementation of policies applicable to energy, electricity, water and wasterewater services....
is in charge of policy and provincial companies are in charge of service provision.
Access
The sector is characterized by a wide discrepancy in coverage of water and sewerage services, as well as between urban and rural areas. The Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for water supply and sanitation of the WHOWho
Who may refer to:* Who , an English-language pronoun* who , a Unix command* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism- Art and entertainment :* Who? , a 1958 novel by Algis Budrys...
and UNICEF, which monitors access figures based on national surveys and censuses, estimated access in Iran from the 1996 census and a 1997 cluster survey. According its esimates, access to an improved source of water supply was 99% in urban areas where two thirds of Iranians live. It was 84% in rural areas (69% house connections). Access to sewerage in urban areas was estimated at 19%. There is no estimate for access to adequate sanitation (including septic tanks and improved latrines).
Water resources
Water availability. Internal renewable water resources are estimated at 128.5 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year (average for 1977-2001). Surface runoff represents a total of 97.3 BCM/year, of which 5.4 BCM/year comes from drainage of the aquifers and thus needs to be subtracted from the total. Groundwater recharge is estimated at about 49.3 BCM/year, of which 12.7 BCM/year is obtained from infiltration in the river bed and also needs to be subtracted. Iran receives 6.7 BCM/year of surface water from Pakistan and some water from Afghanistan through the Helmand River
Helmand River
The Helmand River is the longest river in Afghanistan and the primarily watershed for the endorheic Sistan Basin....
. The flow of the Arax river, at the border with Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan is the largest country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to...
, is estimated at 4.6 BCM/year. The surface runoff to the sea and to other countries is estimated at 55.9 BCM/year. Per capita water availability in the pre-Islamic Revolution era was about 4,500 cubic meters. But, in 2009 this figure was less than 2,000 cubic meters.
Dams. There are 42 large dams under operation in Iran with a combined storage capacity of 33 BCM/year. These dams lose about 200 million cubic meters of storage capacity every year due to sedimentation (0.5-0.75% of their storage capacity). Most dams are multi-purpose dams for hydropower, irrigation, flood control and - in some cases - drinking water supply.
Greater Tehran
Greater Tehran is the metropolitan urban area in Tehran Province that covers the contiguous cities of Tehran, Ray, Shemiranat, and other areas.According to some estimates, Greater Tehran hosts a population of close to 15 million residents....
with its population of more than 13 million is supplied by surface water from the Lar dam
Lar Dam
Lar Dam is a dam located at the foot of Mount Damavand, Amol. It is one of the main sources of water for Tehran, the local metropolitan region.-Construction:...
on the Lar River
Lar River
Lar River is a river of northern Iran.Mazandaran, It flows through the Alborz mountain range....
in the Northeast of the city, the Latyan dam
Latyan Dam
Latyan Dam is a dam located less than 25 km from Tehran. It is one of the main sources of water for Tehran metropolitan region.-Geology:...
on the Jajrud River in the North, the Karaj River in the Northwest, as well as by groundwater in the vicinity of the city. Provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Isfahan have the highest efficiency of irrigation
Irrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
with 54, 52 and 42 percents respectively, and Khuzestan province has the lowest irrigation efficiency with 38 percent. Tap water consumption in the country is 70% over and above the global average.
Infrastructure. Most drinking water in Iran is supplied through modern infrastructure, such as dams, reservoirs, long-distance transmission pipelines - some of which are more than 300 km long - and deep wells. An estimated 60,000 traditional Karez
Qanat
A qanāt is a water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates...
(کاریز) systems in the plateau regions of Iran in Yazd
Yazd
Yazd is the capital of Yazd Province in Iran, and a centre of Zoroastrian culture. The city is located some 175 miles southeast of Isfahan. At the 2006 census, the population was 423,006, in 114,716 families....
, Khorasan and Kerman
Kerman
- Geological characteristics :For the Iranian paleontologists, Kerman has always been considered a fossil paradise. Finding new dinosaur footprints in 2005 has now revealed new hopes for paleontologists to better understand the history of this area.- Economy :...
- are still in use today for irrigation and drinking water supply in rural areas and small towns. The oldest and largest known Karez is in the Iranian city of Gonabad
Gonabad
Gonabad is a city in and the capital of Gonabad County, in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 34,563, in 9,789 families.It is mostly well-known because of the Gonabadi Dervishes and for its qanats, also known as kareez...
which after 2700 years still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well
Water well
A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by an electric submersible pump, a trash pump, a vertical turbine pump, a handpump or a mechanical pump...
depth is more than 360 meters and its length is 45 kilometers. It is estimated that there are as many as 500,000 deep and shallow wells in the country.
Water pollution is caused by industrial and municipal wastewater, as well as by agriculture. Concerning municipal wastewater, the bulk of collected sewage is discharged untreated and constitutes a major source of pollution to groundwater and a risk to public health. In a number of cities without sanitary sewerage, households discharge their sewage through open rainwater drains.
History and recent developments
In September 2003 the Government of Iran and the World Bank agreed on a sector strategy with the targets for improved cost recovery and collection and increased efficiency. It is not clear what were the baseline data in 2003 and to what extent progress has been made to reach these targets.
In November 2008 the government announced that it has approved the construction of 177 dams nationwide. Dams in Iran serve primarily for hydropower generation, irrigation and flood control. However, one of the projects will provide drinking water and water for industrial use to the cities of Qom
Qom
Qom is a city in Iran. It lies by road southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 957,496, in 241,827 families. It is situated on the banks of the Qom River....
, Golpaygan, Delijan
Delijan
Delijan is a city in and the capital of Delijan County, Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 31,852, in 8,779 families.Delijan is located 80 km from Qom and 160 km from Isfahan....
, Saveh
Saveh
Sāveh is a city in the Markazi Province of Iran. It is located around 100 km southwest of Tehran. As of 2006, the city had a population of 179,009 people.-History:In the 7th century BC it was as stronghold of the Medes...
, Khomein
Khomein
Khomeyn is a city in and the capital of Khomeyn County, Markazi Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 64,031, in 17,399 families....
and Nimvar in the central provinces of Qom
Qom Province
Qombol Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran with 11,237 km², covering 0.89% of the total area in Iran. It is in the north of the country, and its provincial capital is the city of Qom. It was formed from part of Tehran Province in 1995. In 2005, this province had a population of...
, Isfahan and Markazi
Markazi Province
Markazi Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. The word markazi means central in Persian. Markazi lies in western Iran. Its capital is Arak. Its population is estimated at 1.35 million...
.
Achievements and challenges
Since the 1980s access to urban water supply has increased from 75.5% to 98%. According to one Iranian observer, the water quantity supplied has increased and the quality has improved. He concludes that the reform has been “very successful” and is “an example of best practice” that should “be proposed to other countries.However, a number of challenges remain. According to the World Bank, the sector is affected by “low water use efficiency in urban and rural uses; limited participation by stakeholders in development planning and management; large needs for rehabilitation and development of hydraulic infrastructure for sustainable water usage; problems of pollution caused by the discharge of untreated wastewater into public waterways and aquifers; and weak institutions involved in the sector and limited coordination among stakeholders.” Still according to the World Bank it is also characterized by “poor performance of water supply and on-site wastewater disposal facilities, causing increasing risk for ground and surface water pollution and health and environmental risks resulting from the discharge and re-use of untreated effluent for irrigation; limited technical, institutional and financial capacity of water and wastewater companies; a lack of clarity of institutional responsibilities of sector entities; and non transparent and inadequate tariff structures and levels.”
Policy
The Ministry of EnergyMinistry of Energy (Iran)
Ministry of Energy of Iran , is the main organ of the Government in charge of the regulation and implementation of policies applicable to energy, electricity, water and wasterewater services....
, through its Deputy Ministry for Urban and Rural Water and Wastewater Management, is in charge of setting sector policies. The Deputy Ministry of Water Affairs in the same Ministry is in charge of water resources management, together with eleven Regional Water Boards. The Environmental Protection Organization is in charge of water pollution control. The Ministry of Health and Medical Education
Ministry of Health and Medical Education
The Ministry of Health and Medical Education has executive responsibility for health and medical education within the Iranian government.Iran's health system is highly centralized, and almost all decisions regarding general...
is responsible for setting drinking water quality standards, as well as monitoring and enforcing them.
The National Water and Wastewater Engineering Company (NWWEC) provides oversight and assistance to service providers in areas such as investment planning, human resources development, and in the establishment of standardized systems and procedures. The National Economic Council sets tariff policy for the whole country, with some differentiation across regions.
Service provision
In 2008 sixty companies were responsible for the provision of water and wastewater services. Evenly spread over Iran’s thirty provinces, each province has one urban and one rural water and wastewater company (WWC). The 60 companies had 38,000 employees. Only Tehran has two separate companies for water and sewerage. In all other provinces, water and sanitation services are provided together. The regional water boards provide bulk raw water through transmission pipelines to the water and wastewater companies, which treat and distribute it.The state-owned WWCs are able to manage their day-to-day operations with a measure of autonomy where Managing Directors can make most decisions on operations and staffing within the limits of the centrally authorized staffing levels and with some flexibility to provide extra compensation to well performing employees. However, the WWCs do not control their own investment programs and, therefore, have limited scope to improve investment and operating efficiency and the level and quality of service. Moreover the WWCs have to follow an organizational model developed by the NWWEC and cannot select a model that would be more appropriate for their particular situation.
Investment
Until 2005, the national budget for the water sector stood at 1,400 billion rialsIranian rial
The rial is the currency of Iran. It is subdivided into 100 dinar but, because of the very low current value of the rial, no fraction of the rial is used in accounting....
while it has reached 3,500 billion rials (US$ 350 million using the official exchange rate) in 2008. This budget apparently includes multi-purpose dam and irrigation as well as water supply and sanitation. The government said in 2011 that investment needs stood at US$150 billion over the next 15 years, 20% of which should be financed by the private sector.
Cost recovery
On average, the service providers do not recover operation and maintenance costs due to low tariffs and low bill collection. For example, the Provincial Water and Sewerage Companies for Ahwaz and Shiraz have been incurring significant net losses at least prior to 2004. The financial performance of the companies is further aggravated by high water losses of 38% in 2002/03 in Ahwaz and about 30% in Shiraz. Of the water that has been billed, only about 73% was collected in 2002/03 in Ahwaz, while it was higher in Shiraz.Tariffs
The current urban tariff system is based on a fixed fee that depends on the size of the connection pipe and on the type of customer (household or other types), and on a volumetric charge based on increasing block-tariffs. The fixed fee, or the subscription fee, was about 2,000 Rials in 2004 (25 US cents) for most domestic customers while the structure of variable tariffs is based on a complex formula. The formula is the same for all companies and there is no volumetric charge if consumption falls below 5 cubic meter per month. Above this minimum, the tariff increases with the level of consumption and generally varies across companies. The average volumetric tariff for the country stood at about 6 US cents in 2002. It varied from 2 cents for monthly consumption below 20 cubic meter, to about 4.5 cents and 12.5 cents respectively for 20-40 and for more than 40 cubic meter of monthly consumption.According to the World Bank, the rate structure is needlessly complex for both volumetric rates and connection fees. Volumetric tariffs are based on complex formulas that differ across consumption brackets and water and wastewater companies. Because of this complexity the tariff structure lacks transparency. Moreover, the structure is such that rates increase by more than threefold when consumption rises from 20 cubic meter or less to slightly higher volumes. Regarding sewage bills they are currently levied and collected only in neighborhoods where a network exists and are a percentage of water bills (70%).
Average connection fees are about US$310 for the whole country and the minimum fee is
approximately equal to US$l50. With a few exceptions, the connection fee for wastewater is the same as that for water. These fees have been regularly increased between 1999 and 2003, at the rate of 10% annually with the exception of the year 2000 in which the fee was increased by 15%. In addition to connection fees, the water and wastewater companies charge the customer the full cost for house connection.
External cooperation
Among the main external partners of the Iranian water and sanitation sector are the World BankWorld Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
and the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
.
World Bank
The World Bank began its engagement in water and sanitation in the Islamic Republic of Iran with the approval of the Tehran Sewerage Project in 2000, followed by the approval of two other projects in 2004 and 2005. Since then the World Bank has not approved any new projects in Iran. In 2010 it had only one active project in the Iranian water and sanitation sector:The Northern Cities Water Supply and Sanitation Project, approved in 2005 and supported by a US$ 224m loan, aims to enhance the quality of life in the four northern cities of RashtRasht
Rasht is a city in and the capital of Gilan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 551,161, in 159,983 families.Rasht is the largest city on Iran's Caspian Sea coast. It is a major trade center between Caucasia, Russia and Iran using the port of Bandar-e Anzali...
and Anzali
Bandar-e Anzali
Bandar-e Anzali , also Romanized as Bandar-e Pahlavī, Bandar Pahlavi, and Bandar Pahlevi, or simply as Pahlavī, Pahlevī, and Pehlevi; earlier, Enceli and Enzeli) is a city in and the capital of Bandar-e Anzali County, Gilan Province, Iran...
in Gilan Province
Gilan Province
Gilan Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It lies along the Caspian Sea, just west of the province of Mazandaran, east of the province of Ardabil, north of the provinces of Zanjan and Qazvin....
, as well as Sari
Sari
A sari or sareeThe name of the garment in various regional languages include: , , , , , , , , , , , , , is a strip of unstitched cloth, worn by females, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. It is popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal,...
and Babol
Babol
Babol is a city in and the capital of Babol County, Mazandaran Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 198,636, in 55,943 families....
in Mazandaran Province
Mazandaran Province
Mazandaran Province is a Caspian province in the north of Iran. Located on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, it is bordered clockwise by the Golestan, Semnan, Tehran, Alborz, Qazvin, and Gilan provinces....
. It aims to do so by improving the operational efficiency and financial sustainability of the two Provincial Water and Wastewater Companies (WWCs). The project will finance the extension and improvement of water distribution systems including metering, sanitary sewers, and a wastewater treatment plant (in Sari). It will also provide consultant services for institutional development and an environmental management plan.
The Ahvaz and Shiraz Water Supply and Sanitation Project, supported by a US$ 279m loan approved in 2004 and closed in 2009, aimed to improve access to satisfactory water supply and significantly increasing coverage o f sanitation services; and improve environmental, hygiene and health conditions, as well as promoting reuse of treated effluents. It also aimed to strengthen and develop the capacity of Ahvaz
Ahvaz
-History:For a more comprehensive historical treatment of the area, see the history section of Khūzestān Province.-Ancient history:Ahvaz is the anagram of "Avaz" and "Avaja" which appear in Darius's epigraph...
and Shiraz Water and Wastewater Companies, and assist the latter in improving their efficiency, sustainability and financial autonomy. It also aimed to initiate sector reforms, particularly with respect to institutional arrangements, the regulatory framework, demand management, as well as prepare a sanitation strategy.
The Tehran Sewerage Project, supported by a US$ 145m loan, closed in 2008. Its objective was to improve the environmental conditions in the Greater Tehran
Tehran
Tehran , sometimes spelled Teheran, is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. With an estimated population of 8,429,807; it is also Iran's largest urban area and city, one of the largest cities in Western Asia, and is the world's 19th largest city.In the 20th century, Tehran was subject to...
area through the installation of wastewater collection and treatment facilities, to improve public health, and enable unrestricted irrigation practices in the surrounding areas. Chlorination would disinfect effluents treated at the secondary level for suitable irrigation purposes, and a further tertiary treatment was to be extended if required. Treated effluents, and sludge were to be reused for agricultural purposes. The project allowed to connect more than 1.3 million people to the sewer system and to build a wastewater treatment plant that was completed in June 2009. A World Bank completion report concluded that the project reached its objectives and performed satisfactorily.
United Nations
UNESCOUNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
-IHE in Delft, The Netherlands, together with the Power and Water University of Technology (Shahid Abbaspour) in Iran, will train 2,100 Iranian professionals in water and wastewater technologies, planning and management. The training will consist of 59 courses to take place in 2008 and the first half of 2009. In addition, 20 study tours to European water and wastewater companies for senior managerial, financial and technical staff will be organised.
Other Foreign Non-governmental Organizations
Unlike other lower and middle-income countries, Iran hosts few private international non-governmental organizations that pursue environmental or social aims. Despite the difficult operating environment and friction with ruling bodies, the Iranian Government has moved to encourage an increased participation by foreign NGOs in past years. As a result some organizations that closed operations have resumed their activities, and new startup organizations, including those that work in the areas of water and sanitation, have initiated projects in Iran. One such organization, Healing For Iran, recently launched a program to improve rural access to water and investigate the causes of water contamination in disadvantaged populations.See also
- List of reservoirs and dams in Iran
- Agriculture in IranAgriculture in IranRoughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suited for farmland, but because of poor soil and lack of adequate water distribution in many areas, most of it is not under cultivation....
- Traditional water sources of Persian antiquityTraditional water sources of Persian antiquityMost rivers in Iran are seasonal and have traditionally not been able to supply the needs of urban settlements. Major rivers like the Arvand, Aras, Zayandeh, Sefid and Atrak were few and far between in the vast lands of Persian antiquity....
- International rankings of Iran
Additional reading
Peter Beaumont, Water Resource Development in Iran, in The Geographical JournalThe Geographical Journal
The Geographical Journal is a journal of the Royal Geographical Society and has been published since 1831. Its original title was Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. The journal publishes original research papers and review articles across geography, and has the highest...
, Vol. 140, No. 3 (Oct., 1974), pp. 418-431, at JSTOR
JSTOR
JSTOR is an online system for archiving academic journals, founded in 1995. It provides its member institutions full-text searches of digitized back issues of several hundred well-known journals, dating back to 1665 in the case of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society...