Water softening
Encyclopedia
Water softening is the reduction of the concentration of calcium
, magnesium
, and certain other metal cations in hard water
. These "hardness ions" can cause a variety of undesired effects including interfering with the action of soap
s, the build up of limescale
, which can foul plumbing
, and galvanic corrosion. Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-exchange resin in which hardness ions are exchanged for sodium
ions. Water
softening may be desirable where the source of water is hard. However, hard water also conveys some benefits to health by providing dietary calcium and magnesium and reducing the solubility of potentially toxic metal ions such as lead
and copper
.
) agents.
Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling the water, but distillation
is too expensive in most cases (rainwater is soft because it is, in effect, distilled)
s.
, but sometimes also hydrogen
(H+) or potassium
(K+). Divalent
calcium and magnesium ions in the water replace these univalent ions, which are released into the water. The "harder" the water, the more hydrogen, sodium or potassium ions are released from the resin and into the water.
Resins are also available to remove carbonate, bi-carbonate and sulphate ions which are absorbed and hydroxyl ions released from the resin. Both types of resin may be provided in a single water softener.this method is called ion exchange method.
or potassium chloride
, or hydrochloric acid solution through them. For anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium hydroxide (lye
) or potassium hydroxide. The salts used for regeneration are released into the soil or sewer.
In industrial scale water softening plants, the effluent flow from re-generation process can precipitate scale that can interfere with sewerage systems.
s. Citric acid
is used to soften water in soaps and laundry detergent
s. A commonly used synthetic chelator is EDTA
.
A person who drinks two litres (2L) of softened, extremely hard water (assume 30 gpg) will consume about 480 mg more sodium (2L x 30 gpg x 8 mg/L/gpg = 480 mg), than if unsoftened water is consumed.
This amount is significant, The American Heart Association (AHA) suggests that the 3 percent of the population who must follow a severe, salt-restricted diet should not consume more than 400 mg of sodium a day. AHA suggests that no more than 10 percent of this sodium intake should come from water. The EPA’s draft guideline of 20 mg/L for water protects people who are most susceptible. Most people who are concerned with the added sodium in the water generally have one tap in the house that bypasses the softener, or have a reverse osmosis
unit installed for the drinking water and cooking water, which was designed for desalinisation of sea water. Potassium chloride can also be used instead of sodium chloride, which would have the added benefit of helping to lower blood pressure, although costly. However, elevated potassium levels are dangerous for people with impaired kidney function: it can lead to complications such as cardiac arrhythmia.
s in the surface layers of skin, making soap molecules difficult to remove by simple dilution. In contrast, in hard-water areas the rinse water contains calcium and/or magnesium ions which form insoluble stearate
s (or their equivalents), effectively removing the residual soap from the skin but potentially leaving a surface coating of insoluble stearates which may be seen as scum.
Calcium
Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
, magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
, and certain other metal cations in hard water
Hard water
Hard water is water that has high mineral content . Hard water has high concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. Hard water is generally not harmful to one's health but can pose serious problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling...
. These "hardness ions" can cause a variety of undesired effects including interfering with the action of soap
Soap
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid.IUPAC. "" Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. . Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford . XML on-line corrected version: created by M. Nic, J. Jirat, B. Kosata; updates compiled by A. Jenkins. ISBN...
s, the build up of limescale
Limescale
Limescale is the hard, off-white, chalky deposit found in kettles, hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems...
, which can foul plumbing
Plumbing
Plumbing is the system of pipes and drains installed in a building for the distribution of potable drinking water and the removal of waterborne wastes, and the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures in such systems. A plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping...
, and galvanic corrosion. Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-exchange resin in which hardness ions are exchanged for sodium
Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride...
ions. Water
Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state . Water also exists in a...
softening may be desirable where the source of water is hard. However, hard water also conveys some benefits to health by providing dietary calcium and magnesium and reducing the solubility of potentially toxic metal ions such as lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
.
Methods for water softening
Water softening methods mainly rely on the removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ from a solution or the sequestration of these ions, i.e. binding them to a molecule that removes their ability to form scale or interfere with soaps. Removal is achieved by ion exchange and by precipitation methods. Sequestration entails the addition of chemical compounds called sequestration (or chelatingChelation
Chelation is the formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between apolydentate ligand and a single central atom....
) agents.
Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling the water, but distillation
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....
is too expensive in most cases (rainwater is soft because it is, in effect, distilled)
Ion-exchange resin devices
Ion-exchange materials contain sodium ions (Na+) that are electrostatically bound and that readily are replaced by hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+. Ion exchange resins are organic polymers containing anionic functional groups to which the Na+ is bound. Minerals called zeolites also exhibit ion-exchange properties; these minerals are widely used in laundry detergentLaundry detergent
Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a substance that is a type of detergent that is added for cleaning laundry. In common usage, "detergent" refers to mixtures of chemical compounds including alkylbenzenesulfonates, which are similar to soap but are less affected by "hard water." In most...
s.
How it works
The water to be treated passes through a bed of the resin. Negatively-charged resins absorb and bind metal ions, which are positively charged (2RNa(s)+M2+(aq)=R2M(s)+2Na+(aq)(M=Mg/Ca)). The resins initially contain univalent (1+) ions, most commonly sodiumSodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride...
, but sometimes also hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
(H+) or potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
(K+). Divalent
Divalent
In chemistry, a divalent ion or molecule has a valence of two and thus can form two bonds with other ions or molecules. An older term for divalent is bivalent....
calcium and magnesium ions in the water replace these univalent ions, which are released into the water. The "harder" the water, the more hydrogen, sodium or potassium ions are released from the resin and into the water.
Resins are also available to remove carbonate, bi-carbonate and sulphate ions which are absorbed and hydroxyl ions released from the resin. Both types of resin may be provided in a single water softener.this method is called ion exchange method.
Regeneration
The resin's capacity is gradually exhausted and eventually it contains only divalent ions, Mg2+ and Ca2+ for cation exchange resins, and SO42- for anion exchange resins. At this stage, the resin must be regenerated. If a cationic resin is used (to remove calcium and magnesium ions) then regeneration is usually effected by passing a concentrated brine, usually of sodium chlorideSodium chloride
Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt or halite, is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of the ocean and of the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms...
or potassium chloride
Potassium chloride
The chemical compound potassium chloride is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chlorine. In its pure state, it is odorless and has a white or colorless vitreous crystal appearance, with a crystal structure that cleaves easily in three directions. Potassium chloride crystals are...
, or hydrochloric acid solution through them. For anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium hydroxide (lye
Lye
Lye is a corrosive alkaline substance, commonly sodium hydroxide or historically potassium hydroxide . Previously, lye was among the many different alkalis leached from hardwood ashes...
) or potassium hydroxide. The salts used for regeneration are released into the soil or sewer.
In industrial scale water softening plants, the effluent flow from re-generation process can precipitate scale that can interfere with sewerage systems.
Chelating agents
Chelators are used in chemical analysis, as water softeners, and are ingredients in many commercial products such as shampoos and food preservativePreservative
A preservative is a naturally occurring or synthetically produced substance that is added to products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, paints, biological samples, wood, etc. to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes....
s. Citric acid
Citric acid
Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It is a natural preservative/conservative and is also used to add an acidic, or sour, taste to foods and soft drinks...
is used to soften water in soaps and laundry detergent
Laundry detergent
Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a substance that is a type of detergent that is added for cleaning laundry. In common usage, "detergent" refers to mixtures of chemical compounds including alkylbenzenesulfonates, which are similar to soap but are less affected by "hard water." In most...
s. A commonly used synthetic chelator is EDTA
EDTA
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA , is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ligand...
.
Magnetic water treatment
Also known as Anti-scale Magnetic Treatment or AMT is a proposed method of reducing the effects of hard water, as an alternative to water softening. Scientific studies of the effectiveness of the treatment do not support the proponents claims.Effects of sodium
For people on a low-sodium diet, the increase in sodium levels (for systems releasing sodium) in the water can be significant, especially when treating very hard water. For example:A person who drinks two litres (2L) of softened, extremely hard water (assume 30 gpg) will consume about 480 mg more sodium (2L x 30 gpg x 8 mg/L/gpg = 480 mg), than if unsoftened water is consumed.
This amount is significant, The American Heart Association (AHA) suggests that the 3 percent of the population who must follow a severe, salt-restricted diet should not consume more than 400 mg of sodium a day. AHA suggests that no more than 10 percent of this sodium intake should come from water. The EPA’s draft guideline of 20 mg/L for water protects people who are most susceptible. Most people who are concerned with the added sodium in the water generally have one tap in the house that bypasses the softener, or have a reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a membrane technical filtration method that removes many types of large molecules and ions from solutions by applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of a selective membrane. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and...
unit installed for the drinking water and cooking water, which was designed for desalinisation of sea water. Potassium chloride can also be used instead of sodium chloride, which would have the added benefit of helping to lower blood pressure, although costly. However, elevated potassium levels are dangerous for people with impaired kidney function: it can lead to complications such as cardiac arrhythmia.
Effects of soap in hard water
Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. Water softeners remove those ions by exchanging them for sodium or potassium ions. The slippery feeling experienced when using soap with soft water occurs because soaps tend to bind to fatFat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
s in the surface layers of skin, making soap molecules difficult to remove by simple dilution. In contrast, in hard-water areas the rinse water contains calcium and/or magnesium ions which form insoluble stearate
Stearate
Stearateis the anion form of stearic acid.Formula is C17H35COO−.-Examples:* Sodium stearate, Na* Calcium stearate, Ca2* Magnesium stearate, Mg2...
s (or their equivalents), effectively removing the residual soap from the skin but potentially leaving a surface coating of insoluble stearates which may be seen as scum.
See also
- Ion exchangeIon exchangeIon exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex. In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or mineralic 'ion...
- Water purificationWater purificationWater purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological contaminants from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose...
- Descaling agentDescaling agentAn anti-scaling agent, also known as descaling agent, anti-limestone, anti-limescale, anti-lime or anti-scale are preparations to prevent the buildup or to remove limescale and fouling...
- DesalinationDesalinationDesalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water...
External links
- Association of Water Technologies
- Water Quality Association
- Wilkes University hard water site
- Riverside County CA water softener restrictions
- Water softener regeneration
- Gallery of water-related pseudoscience - Chemist's site providing explanations of how alternatives to water softening, such as catalytic water conditioning, are not scientifically grounded