United States Cultural Exchange Programs
Encyclopedia
United States
cultural exchange programs, particularly those programs with ties to the
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
(ECA) of the United States Department of State
, seek to develop cultural understanding between United States citizens and citizens of other countries. Exchange programs do not necessarily exchange one individual for another individual of another country; rather, "exchange" refers to the exchange of cultural understanding created when an individual goes to another country. These programs can be regarded as a form of cultural diplomacy
within the spectrum of public diplomacy
.
Exchange programs played a vital role in official and unofficial relations between the Soviet Union
and the United States during the Cold War
. Examples of cultural exchange programs include student exchange
s, sports exchanges, and scholarly or professional exchanges, among many others. While many exchange programs are funded by the government, many others are private-sector organizations, either non-profit or for-profit.
, named coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs for the American Republics, encouraged journalists from Latin America to visit the United States in 1940 as part of the exchange of programs program with Latin America. Following World War II, Senator J. William Fulbright introduced legislation for what would become the Fulbright Program
in 1946. One of the most significant moments in the formalization of exchange programs as tools of American Foreign Policy came under U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
. In 1955, Eisenhower met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev
in Geneva. Soon after this meeting, Eisenhower said, "The subject that took most of my attention was the possibility of increased visits overseas by the citizens of one country into the territory of the other nation. In this subject there was the fullest possible agreement between the West and the Soviet Union".
In 1959, the exchange programs aspect of the State Department was separated from the Public Affairs Bureau to form the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Relations . In 1961, Congress passed the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act (also known as Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961
), mandating an increase in governmental programs to enhance mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries.
with the Soviet Union
. George Kennan
, a key figure in the Cold War known as the father of containment
, viewed culture as a way to decrease negative sentiments between countries. Examples of cultural exchange programs between the United States and the Soviet Union include theater, museum, and opera expositions. Although not political on the surface, cultural exchanges like these helped alleviate tensions and "humanize" the West in the eyes of the Soviets who witnessed them.
In addition to Americans visiting the Soviet Union, approximately 50,000 Soviet citizens visited the United States, including writers, politicians, musicians, and other arts figures. Oleg Kalugin
, former KGB general and head of KGB operations in the United States, noted that these exchange programs were a "Trojan Horse
," because they "eroded" the Soviet system.
(The Alliance) was created following the merger of the International Exchange Association and the Liaison Group for International Educational Exchange. This merger made The Alliance the central association for United States exchange programs. Today, The Alliance is composted of 76 non-governmental organizations. The Alliance's activities include formulating specific recommendations to support public policy regarding educational and cultural exchanges.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, but before the September 11 attacks, funding for exchange programs declined. The number of exchanges per year dropped from nearly 45,000 individuals to less than 30,000. The State Department recognizes a general lack of funding. While spending on traditional diplomacy
amounted to $25 billion in 2002 and intelligence spending was $30 billion the same year, spending on exchange programs was at $232 million, a decline from the $349 million spent on exchange programs in 1993 .
As of 2003, exchange programs sponsored by the United States Government have brought roughly 700,000 foreigners to the United States. The ECA indicates that at least 200 heads of state (both current and previous) have received an education in the United States from one of these exchange programs. Additionally, approximately 1,500 high ranking ministers have similarly participated in such programs.
and Anwar Sadat
.
is a program offered by the State Department as part of the National Security Language Initiative
. It offers language students of those languages deemed "critical" to the needs of the United States full scholarship to live and study in a target country. Students live in host family environments and are completely immersed in the target country's language and culture. Students are expected to continue their study of the target country's language and culture following completion of the program.
estimated in 2003 that 39 of the then current heads of state formerly participated in the IVLP.
is a cultural exchange program run by the United States Government. Founded in 1960 following then-Senator John F. Kennedy
's challenge to University of Michigan students to serve the country by living and working in foreign countries, the Peace Corps serves as a vital federal agency for promoting understanding of foreign cultures among Americans and of American culture among foreigners in troubled regions of the world. Over 200,000 Americans have volunteered in the Peace Corps since its inception in 139 countries.
, the People to People initiative offered non-governmental contacts between people of different countries. Following Eisenhower's departure from office, the program was privatized and incorporated in the state of Missouri
. People to People provides four core programs, including Student Ambassadors, Sports Ambassadors, Leadership Programs, and Citizen Ambassador Programs. More than 500,000 people have participated in these programs .
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
cultural exchange programs, particularly those programs with ties to the
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State fosters mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries around the world...
(ECA) of the United States Department of State
United States Department of State
The United States Department of State , is the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United States, equivalent to the foreign ministries of other countries...
, seek to develop cultural understanding between United States citizens and citizens of other countries. Exchange programs do not necessarily exchange one individual for another individual of another country; rather, "exchange" refers to the exchange of cultural understanding created when an individual goes to another country. These programs can be regarded as a form of cultural diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy has existed as a practice for centuries. Explorers, travelers, teachers and artists can be all considered examples of informal ambassadors or early cultural diplomats...
within the spectrum of public diplomacy
Public Diplomacy (U.S.)
Public Diplomacy is that "form of international Political Advocacy in which the civilians of one country use legitimate means to reach out to the civilians of another country in order to gain popular support for negotiations occurring through diplomatic channels."- America :1917-1919 - President...
.
Exchange programs played a vital role in official and unofficial relations between the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and the United States during the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
. Examples of cultural exchange programs include student exchange
Student Exchange
Student Exchange is a 1987 television film directed by Mollie Miller.-Plot:Carole and Neil, two nerdy teenagers, get only perfect grades but have no social skills. When Carole learns that two foreign exchange students from France and Italy have gone to another school, they grab their chance and...
s, sports exchanges, and scholarly or professional exchanges, among many others. While many exchange programs are funded by the government, many others are private-sector organizations, either non-profit or for-profit.
History
One of the earliest cultural exchanges to be considered part of U.S. Public Diplomacy occurred when Nelson RockefellerNelson Rockefeller
Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was the 41st Vice President of the United States , serving under President Gerald Ford, and the 49th Governor of New York , as well as serving the Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower administrations in a variety of positions...
, named coordinator of Commercial and Cultural Affairs for the American Republics, encouraged journalists from Latin America to visit the United States in 1940 as part of the exchange of programs program with Latin America. Following World War II, Senator J. William Fulbright introduced legislation for what would become the Fulbright Program
Fulbright Program
The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright-Hays Program, is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under the...
in 1946. One of the most significant moments in the formalization of exchange programs as tools of American Foreign Policy came under U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
. In 1955, Eisenhower met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964...
in Geneva. Soon after this meeting, Eisenhower said, "The subject that took most of my attention was the possibility of increased visits overseas by the citizens of one country into the territory of the other nation. In this subject there was the fullest possible agreement between the West and the Soviet Union".
In 1959, the exchange programs aspect of the State Department was separated from the Public Affairs Bureau to form the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Relations . In 1961, Congress passed the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act (also known as Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961
Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961
The Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961 is officially known as the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 . It was marshalled by United States Senator J...
), mandating an increase in governmental programs to enhance mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries.
Cold War
Exchange Programs from the United States played a vital role during the Cold WarCold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
with the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. George Kennan
George Kennan
George Kennan may refer to:* George Kennan * George F. Kennan , diplomat and historian; the explorer's great-nephew and architect of the U.S. containment over confrontation policy during the Cold War....
, a key figure in the Cold War known as the father of containment
Containment
Containment was a United States policy using military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to stall the spread of communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a "domino effect". A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet...
, viewed culture as a way to decrease negative sentiments between countries. Examples of cultural exchange programs between the United States and the Soviet Union include theater, museum, and opera expositions. Although not political on the surface, cultural exchanges like these helped alleviate tensions and "humanize" the West in the eyes of the Soviets who witnessed them.
In addition to Americans visiting the Soviet Union, approximately 50,000 Soviet citizens visited the United States, including writers, politicians, musicians, and other arts figures. Oleg Kalugin
Oleg Kalugin
Oleg Danilovich Kalugin , is a former KGB general. He was a longtime head of KGB operations in the United States and later a critic of the agency.-Early life and the KGB career:...
, former KGB general and head of KGB operations in the United States, noted that these exchange programs were a "Trojan Horse
Trojan Horse
The Trojan Horse is a tale from the Trojan War about the stratagem that allowed the Greeks finally to enter the city of Troy and end the conflict. In the canonical version, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse, and hid a select force of men inside...
," because they "eroded" the Soviet system.
Post-Cold War
In 1993, the Alliance for International Educational and Cultural ExchangeAlliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange
The Alliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange is an association of non-governmental exchange programs in the United States. The Alliance was founded in 1993 following the merger of the International Exchange Association and the Liaison Group for International Educational Exchange...
(The Alliance) was created following the merger of the International Exchange Association and the Liaison Group for International Educational Exchange. This merger made The Alliance the central association for United States exchange programs. Today, The Alliance is composted of 76 non-governmental organizations. The Alliance's activities include formulating specific recommendations to support public policy regarding educational and cultural exchanges.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, but before the September 11 attacks, funding for exchange programs declined. The number of exchanges per year dropped from nearly 45,000 individuals to less than 30,000. The State Department recognizes a general lack of funding. While spending on traditional diplomacy
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states...
amounted to $25 billion in 2002 and intelligence spending was $30 billion the same year, spending on exchange programs was at $232 million, a decline from the $349 million spent on exchange programs in 1993 .
As of 2003, exchange programs sponsored by the United States Government have brought roughly 700,000 foreigners to the United States. The ECA indicates that at least 200 heads of state (both current and previous) have received an education in the United States from one of these exchange programs. Additionally, approximately 1,500 high ranking ministers have similarly participated in such programs.
Significance to US Foreign Policy
Individuals brought to the United States or who experience Americans abroad through cultural exchange programs develop a lasting impression of both American culture and the government of the United States. Those millions who have been educated in the United States may develop a deep-rooted appreciation for American culture. Many of these individuals enter into positions that directly affect the foreign policy of the United States, such as Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990...
and Anwar Sadat
Anwar Sadat
Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat was the third President of Egypt, serving from 15 October 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981...
.
Trends
Following 9/11, there has been an increase in U.S. Government support for cultural exchange programs in the Middle East. In 2003, for example, 25% of governmental funding for cultural exchange programs was targeted at Arab and Muslim countries. This increase in targeted spending led to the creation of the Partnership for Learning (P4L), which "provides scholarships for secondary school students from countries with significant Muslim populations to spend up to one academic year in the United States. The program is vital to expanding communication between the people of the U.S. and the partner countries in the interest of promoting mutual understanding and respect".Critical Language Scholarship Program
The Critical Language Scholarship (CLS) ProgramCritical Language Scholarship (CLS) Program
The Critical Language Scholarship Program is a United States Department of State cultural and educational exchange program which offers 575 students from the United States the opportunity to participate in an intensive language study abroad...
is a program offered by the State Department as part of the National Security Language Initiative
National Security Language Initiative
The National Security Language Initiative is a program introduced by United States President George W. Bush on January 5, 2006 at the U.S. University President's Summit to develop the foreign language skills of American students, especially in "critical-need" foreign languages such as Arabic,...
. It offers language students of those languages deemed "critical" to the needs of the United States full scholarship to live and study in a target country. Students live in host family environments and are completely immersed in the target country's language and culture. Students are expected to continue their study of the target country's language and culture following completion of the program.
Fulbright Program
The Fulbright Program, operating in more than 155 countries, serves to increase understanding between United States citizens and citizens of foreign countries. Since its inception in 1946, the program has counted over 114,000 people from the United States and 186,000 citizens of other countries. In 2010, The Fulbright Program received $253.8 million from the United States Government, while the total of foreign contributions to the program totaled $68.5 million.International Military Education and Training Program
The International Military Education and Training Program (IMET) was created following the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. It is funded via the International Affairs budget of the United States Department of State, though is used by the Department of Defense. Its two goals are to increase regional stability and to increase the understanding democratic principles and human rights among foreign militaries and civilians. To these ends, foreign students are exposed to U.S. military procedures and general American culture. This program includes over 2,000 courses and offers instruction at nearly 150 military installations.International Visitor Leadership Program
The International Visitor Leadership Program (IVLP), formerly the International Visitor Program, seeks to bring promising or current leaders of foreign countries to the United States in hopes of building lasting ties. Colin PowellColin Powell
Colin Luther Powell is an American statesman and a retired four-star general in the United States Army. He was the 65th United States Secretary of State, serving under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African American to serve in that position. During his military...
estimated in 2003 that 39 of the then current heads of state formerly participated in the IVLP.
Peace Corps
The Peace CorpsPeace Corps
The Peace Corps is an American volunteer program run by the United States Government, as well as a government agency of the same name. The mission of the Peace Corps includes three goals: providing technical assistance, helping people outside the United States to understand US culture, and helping...
is a cultural exchange program run by the United States Government. Founded in 1960 following then-Senator John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
's challenge to University of Michigan students to serve the country by living and working in foreign countries, the Peace Corps serves as a vital federal agency for promoting understanding of foreign cultures among Americans and of American culture among foreigners in troubled regions of the world. Over 200,000 Americans have volunteered in the Peace Corps since its inception in 139 countries.
People to People Ambassador Program
Founded as part of the U.S. Information Agency by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956 to ease tensions during the Cold WarCold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
, the People to People initiative offered non-governmental contacts between people of different countries. Following Eisenhower's departure from office, the program was privatized and incorporated in the state of Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...
. People to People provides four core programs, including Student Ambassadors, Sports Ambassadors, Leadership Programs, and Citizen Ambassador Programs. More than 500,000 people have participated in these programs .
See Also
- American Film ProgramAmerican Film ProgramThe American Film Program is a program for cultural exchange of the United States State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.- Purpose :...
- Bureau of Educational and Cultural AffairsBureau of Educational and Cultural AffairsThe Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State fosters mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries around the world...
- Carnegie Hall Cultural ExchangeCarnegie Hall Cultural ExchangeThe Carnegie Hall Cultural Exchange is a cultural exchange program sponsored in part by the United States State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs and administered by Carnegie Hall The program brings New York City students together with students in foreign countries, where the...
- Cultural diplomacyCultural diplomacyCultural diplomacy has existed as a practice for centuries. Explorers, travelers, teachers and artists can be all considered examples of informal ambassadors or early cultural diplomats...
- InterExchangeInterExchangeInterExchange is a non-profit organization and a J-1 visa sponsor designated by the U.S. Department of State. The company manages cultural exchange programs for participants from more than 60 countries who work in the U.S. in short-term positions lasting 4 to 18 months, and for Americans who work...
- Public DiplomacyPublic diplomacyIn international relations, public diplomacy or people's diplomacy, broadly speaking, is the communication with foreign publics to establish a dialogue designed to inform and influence. There is no one definition of Public Diplomacy, and may be easier described than easily defined as definitions...
- Student exchange programStudent exchange programA student exchange program generally could be defined as a program where students from secondary school or university choose to study abroad in partner institutions...
- The Rhythm Road: American Music AbroadThe Rhythm Road: American Music AbroadThe Rhythm Road: American Music Abroad is a $1.5 million per annum cultural exchange program for musicians sponsored in part by the United States State Department's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. This program is in partnership with Jazz at Lincoln Center...