Strings (music) - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Vibrating string

A vibration in a string is a wave. Usually a vibrating string produces a sound whose frequency in most cases is constant. Therefore, since frequency characterizes the pitch, the sound produced is a constant note....

that produces sound in string instrument

String instrument

A string instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by means of vibrating strings. In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, they are called chordophones...

s, such as the guitar

Guitar

The guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with...

, harp

Harp

The harp is a multi-stringed instrument which has the plane of its strings positioned perpendicularly to the soundboard. Organologically, it is in the general category of chordophones and has its own sub category . All harps have a neck, resonator and strings...

, piano

Piano

The piano is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It is one of the most popular instruments in the world. Widely used in classical and jazz music for solo performances, ensemble use, chamber music and accompaniment, the piano is also very popular as an aid to composing and rehearsal...

, and members of the violin family

Violin family

The violin family of musical instruments was developed in Italy in the sixteenth century. The standard modern violin family consists of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass....

. Strings are lengths of a flexible material kept under tension

Tension (mechanics)

In physics, tension is the magnitude of the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or similar object on another object. It is the opposite of compression. As tension is the magnitude of a force, it is measured in newtons and is always measured parallel to the string on which it applies...

so that they may vibrate freely, but controllably. Strings may be "plain" (consisting only of a single material, like steel

Steel

Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten...

, nylon

Nylon

Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides, first produced on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station...

, or gut

Catgut

Catgut is a type of cord that is prepared from the natural fibre found in the walls of animal intestines. Usually sheep or goat intestines are used, but it is occasionally made from the intestines of cattle, hogs, horses, mules, or donkeys.-Etymology:...

). "Wound" strings, on the other hand, have a "core" of one material, with an overwinding of other materials. This is to make the string vibrate at the desired pitch, while maintaining a low profile and sufficient flexibility for purposes of playability.

String construction

Depending on the instrument they are designed for, strings have either a loop end or ball end (actually a short brass cylinder) that attaches the string at the end opposite the tuning mechanism. Strings for some instruments may be wrapped with silk at their ends to protect the string. The color and pattern of the silk can be used to identify the size and denomination of the string.

Wound strings

There are several varieties of wound strings.

Roundwound

The simplest strings are roundwound. They have either a round core or a hex (hexagonal) core inside, and round wire wound in a tight spiral around it. Such strings are usually simple to manufacture and, thus, are usually the least expensive. There are several drawbacks, however:

Roundwound strings have a bumpy surface profile (the bumps of the winding) that can produce friction when in contact with the player's fingertips. This causes squeaking sounds when the player's fingers slide over the strings. Some artists use this sound creatively.
A non-flat, high-friction surface profile may hasten fingerboard
Fingerboard
The fingerboard is a part of most stringed instruments. It is a thin, long strip of material, usually wood, that is laminated to the front of the neck of an instrument and above which the strings run...

and fret
Fret
A fret is a raised portion on the neck of a stringed instrument, that extends generally across the full width of the neck. On most modern western instruments, frets are metal strips inserted into the fingerboard...

wear.
When the core is round, the winding is not secured to the core and can rotate freely around it, especially if the winding is damaged after use.

Flatwound

Flatwound strings also have either a round or a hex core. However, the winding wire has a rounded square cross-section that has a shallower profile (in cross-section) when tightly wound. This makes for more comfortable playing, and decreased wear for frets and fretboards. Squeaking sounds due to fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly. Flatwound strings also have a longer playable life because of fewer and smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in.

On the other hand, players frequently cite that flatwound strings produce a less bright sound when compared to roundwounds. Flatwounds also usually cost more than roundwounds; less demand means less production and higher overhead costs; manufacturing is also more difficult as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained (some rotation of the winding on roundwound strings is acceptable).

Halfwound, ground wound, pressure wound

Halfwound strings, ground wound strings or pressure wound strings are a cross between roundwound and flatwound. Such strings are usually made by winding round wire around a round or hex core first, then polishing, grinding (thus the name, ground wound) or pressing the exterior part of the winding until it is practically flat. This results in the flat, comfortable playing feel of flatwounds, along with less squeaking, with a brightness generally between roundwounds and flatwounds. The polishing process removes almost half of the winding wire's mass, thus, to compensate for it, manufacturers use winding wire of a heavier gauge. Because of the extra manufacturing process involved they are normally more expensive than roundwounds, but less than flatwounds.

Hexcore

Hexcore strings are composed of regular hexagonal core and a tight (usually round) winding. It prevents the winding from slipping around the core - a problem usually associated with round core strings. The hexagonal cross-section of the core provide pressure points that help secure the winding around the core better, to prevent unwanted slipping and subsequent rotation.

Gauge

Bowed instrument strings such as those for the violin or cello are usually not described by their gauge. These strings are usually described by their tension. The discussion here primarily concerns fretted instruments.

The tone of a string depends partly on its weight, and, therefore, on its diameter or so-called gauge. Traditionally, a string's diameter is measured in thousandths of an inch

Inch

An inch is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including Imperial units, and United States customary units. There are 36 inches in a yard and 12 inches in a foot...

(0.001 in = 0.0254 mm). The larger the diameter, the heavier the string is. Heavier strings require more tension for the same pitch and are, as a consequence, harder to press down to the fingerboard

Fingerboard

The fingerboard is a part of most stringed instruments. It is a thin, long strip of material, usually wood, that is laminated to the front of the neck of an instrument and above which the strings run...

. If a fretted instrument

Fret

A fret is a raised portion on the neck of a stringed instrument, that extends generally across the full width of the neck. On most modern western instruments, frets are metal strips inserted into the fingerboard...

is restrung with different string gauges, it may be necessary to adjust string height above the frets, (the "action

Action (music)

The term action, used in connection with stringed instruments, has two meanings, depending on whether the instrument is played with a keyboard or plucked by hand.-In keyboard instruments:...

") to make the instrument easier to play or keep the strings from buzzing against the frets. The action height of fretless instruments is also adjusted to suit the string gauge or material, as well as the intended playing style.

Steel strings for 6-string guitar

Guitar

usually come in sets of matched strings. Sets are usually referenced either by the gauge of the first string (e.g., 9), or by pair of first and last (e.g., 9-42). Some manufacturers may have slightly different gauge sequences; the sample data below comes from D'Addario

D'Addario

D'Addario is a manufacturer of musical instrument strings, primarily guitar strings, currently headquartered in Farmingdale, Long Island, New York...

string charts for regular, round-wound, nickel-plated strings.

Electric Guitar

(Note: strings in dark gray boxes are wound. All others are plain.)

Name	1 (E)	2 (B)	3 (G)	4 (D)	5 (A)	6 (E)
Extra super light (8-38)	.008	.010	.015	.021	.030	.038
Extra super light plus (8.5-39)	.0085	.0105	.015	.022	.032	.039
Super light (9-42)	.009	.011	.016	.024	.032	.042
Super light plus (9.5-44)	.0095	.0115	.016	.024	.034	.044
Regular light (10-46)	.010	.013	.017	.026	.036	.046
Extra light w/heavy bass (9-46)	.009	.013	.021	.029	.036	.046
Medium (11-48/49)	.011	.014	.018	.028	.038	.048/49
Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10-52)	.010	.013	.017	.032	.042	.052
Medium w/wound G string (11-52)	.011	.013	.020	.030	.042	.052
Heavy (12-54)	.012	.016	.020	.032	.042	.054
Extra heavy (13-56)	.013	.017	.026	.036	.046	.056

(Diameter in mm)>

Name	1 (E)	2 (B)	3 (G)	4 (D)	5 (A)	6 (E)
Extra super light (8-38)	0.2032	0.2540	0.3810	0.5334	0.7620	0.9652
Extra super light plus (812.7-39)	0.2159	0.2667	0.3810	0.5588	0.8128	0.9906
Super light (9-42)	0.2286	0.2794	0.4064	0.6096	0.8128	1.0668
Super light plus (9-44)	0.2413	0.2921	0.4064	0.6096	0.8636	1.1176
Regular light (10-46)	0.2540	0.3302	0.4318	0.6604	0.9144	1.1684
Extra light w/heavy bass (9-46)	0.2286	0.3302	0.5334	0.7366	0.9144	1.1684
Medium (11-48/49)	0.2794	0.3556	0.4572	0.7112	0.9652	1.2192~1.2446
Light Top / Heavy Bottom (10-52)	0.2540	0.3302	0.4318	0.8128	1.0668	1.3208
Medium w/wound G string (11-52)	0.2794	0.3302	0.5080	0.7620	1.0668	1.3208
Heavy (12-54)	0.3048	0.4064	0.5080	0.8128	1.0668	1.3716
Extra heavy (13-56)	0.3302	0.4318	0.6604	0.9144	1.1684	1.4224

Acoustic Guitar

(Note: strings in dark gray boxes are bronze wound. All others are plain.)

Name	1 (E)	2 (B)	3 (G)	4 (D)	5 (A)	6 (E)
Extra light (10-47)	.010	.014	.023	.030	.039	.047
Custom light (11-52)	.011	.015	.023	.032	.042	.052
Light (12-54)	.012	.016	.025	.032	.042	.054
Light/Medium (12.5-55)	.0125	.0165	.0255	.0335	.0435	.055
Medium(13-56)	.013	.017	.026	.035	.045	.056

Bass Guitar

Typical bass guitar

Bass guitar

The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb , or by using a pick....

strings come in the following gauges. Bass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long (sometimes called super long) scale.

Name	1 (G)	2 (D)	3 (A)	4 (E)	5 (B)
Light or "soft" (40-100)	.040	.060	.080	.100	.120
Medium (45-105)	.045	.065	.085	.105	.125
Heavy (50-110)	.050	.075	.095	.110	.130

Note that some manufacturers of strings produce other sets of strings, too; the figure above merely lists the most commonly used combinations.

Strings for violin family

Violin family

The violin family of musical instruments was developed in Italy in the sixteenth century. The standard modern violin family consists of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass....

instruments are often sold in 3 gauges simply labeled heavy, medium, and light, which do not have a standard size associated with them. (These gauges are sometimes called by their German names, stark, mittel, and weich.)

Bowed Strings

With the advent of steel and synthetic core strings in the 20th century, most manufacturers of bowed instrument (violin, viola, etc.) strings have been marketing these products as light, medium or heavy tension rather than by their measured gauge. There is no standard of what these words mean. In other words, the medium gauge of one brand may have quite a different tension from the medium gauge of another brand. Based on available historical records, gut strings were sold before 1900 in a similar way. On the other hand, modern gut core strings with metal winding, typically have been sold either ungauged for the less expensive brands, or by specific gauge. The Gustav Pirazzi company in Germany introduced the Pirazzi meter, or PM, measurement early in the 20th century. One PM equals .05 mm. For example, a 14 1/2 PM gauge string has an actual gauge of .725 mm. Pirazzi (now known as Pirastro) to this day continues to sell its Olive, Eudoxa, and Passione brand premium gut core strings by PM gauge. Each string is available in 5 or more discrete gauges. Manufacturers of traditional plain gut strings, often used in historically informed performance, sell their products by light/medium/heavy, by PM, by mm or some combination thereof.

Core

Steel

forms the core for almost all metal strings. Certain keyboard instruments (eg harpsichord) and the Gaelic harp use brass. Other natural materials such as silk

Silk

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...

or gut

Catgut

, or synthetics such as nylon

Nylon

and kevlar

Kevlar

Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires...

are also used for string cores. (Steel used for strings, called music wire

Piano wire

Piano wire, or "music wire", is a specialized type of wire made for use in piano strings, as well as many other purposes. It is made from tempered high-carbon steel, also known as spring steel.-Manufacture and use:...

, is hardened and tempered.) Some violin E strings are gold-plated to improve tone quality.

Sheep and beef gut (called catgut
Catgut
Catgut is a type of cord that is prepared from the natural fibre found in the walls of animal intestines. Usually sheep or goat intestines are used, but it is occasionally made from the intestines of cattle, hogs, horses, mules, or donkeys.-Etymology:...

, even though cats were never used for this purpose) were the original materials used as cores for strings for violin family

Violin family

The violin family of musical instruments was developed in Italy in the sixteenth century. The standard modern violin family consists of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass....

instruments. Gut strings are subject to changes in humidity, which cause them go out of tune, and they also break more easily than other core materials. However, even after the introduction of metal and synthetic core materials, gut strings remain in widespread use because their warmer tone is preferable to some players. They are also desired in historically informed performances of music written before 1900. Modern gut strings are usually wrapped in metal. For players of plucked instruments, Nylgut strings are a recently developed alternative to gut strings - made from a plastic material, they offer almost exactly the same acoustic properties as gut strings, but with none of the problems of tuning caused by climatic variations. Many players of early music now use them in preference to genuine gut.

Silk was extensively used in China for traditional Chinese musical instruments

Traditional Chinese musical instruments

-The Eight Sounds or Eight Tones :The eight categories are: silk, bamboo, wood, stone, metal, clay, gourd and hide. There are other instruments which may not fit these classifications. This is one of the first musical classifications ever.-Silk :...

until they were replaced by metal-nylon strings in the 1950s. Only the silk strings used for the guqin

Guqin

The guqin is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family...

are still produced; the quality in ancient times was very high to the extent that there was a brand praised as 'ice strings' because of their smoothness and translucent appearance.

At the present time, one of the most popular materials for the cores of violin, viola, cello, and double bass strings is stranded nylon, often sold under the trade name of Perlon.

Nylon guitar strings were first developed by Albert Augustine Strings in 1947.

Today, most jazz and folk string players prefer steel-core strings for their faster response, low cost, and tuning stability, whereas most classical string players prefer synthetic-core strings (Perlon etc.) for their richer overtones and "warmer" tone. Most baroque string players still prefer gut-core strings.

By far the most popular string combination for a modern concert violinist is synthetic-core G, D, and A strings, with a steel E string.

Winding

Aluminum, silver

Silver

Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...

, and chrome steel

Chrome steel

Chrome steel is one of a class of non stainless steels such as AISI 52100, En31, SUJ2, 100Cr6, 100C6, DIN 5401 which are used for applications such bearings, tools and drills.-Popular culture:...

are common windings for bowed instruments like violin and viola, whereas acoustic guitar and piano strings are usually wound with bronze

Bronze

Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...

. Classical guitar strings are typically nylon, with the basses being wound with either silver or bronze. Electric guitar strings are usually wound with nickel plated steel; pure nickel and stainless steel are also used. Bass guitar strings are most commonly wound with stainless steel

Stainless steel

In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content by mass....

or nickel

Nickel

Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile...

. Copper

Copper

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...

, gold

Gold

Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...

, silver

Silver

, and tungsten

Tungsten

Tungsten , also known as wolfram , is a chemical element with the chemical symbol W and atomic number 74.A hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth only in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as...

are used for some instruments. Silver and gold are more expensive, and are used for their resistance to corrosion and hypoallergenic

Hypoallergenic

Hypoallergenic, meaning "below normal" or "slightly" allergenic, was a term first used in a cosmetics campaign in 1953. It is used to describe items that cause or are claimed to cause fewer allergic reactions...

ity.

Some "historically-informed"

Historically informed performance

Historically informed performance is an approach in the performance of music and theater. Within this approach, the performance adheres to state-of-the-art knowledge of the aesthetic criteria of the period in which the music or theatre work was conceived...

strings use an open metal winding with a "barber pole" appearance. This practice improves the acoustic performance of heavier gauge gut strings by adding mass and making the string thinner for its tension. Specimens of such open wound strings are known from the early 18th century, in a collection of artifacts from Antonio Stradivari

Antonio Stradivari

Antonio Stradivari was an Italian luthier and a crafter of string instruments such as violins, cellos, guitars, violas, and harps. Stradivari is generally considered the most significant artisan in this field. The Latinized form of his surname, Stradivarius, as well as the colloquial, "Strad", is...

.

"Silk and steel" guitar strings are overwound steel strings with silk filaments running under the winding.

String vibration

A string vibrates in a complex harmonic pattern. Every time a string is set into motion, a specific set of frequencies resonate based on the harmonic series

Harmonic series (music)

Pitched musical instruments are often based on an approximate harmonic oscillator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous frequencies simultaneously. At these resonant frequencies, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling...

. The fundamental frequency

Fundamental frequency

The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental and abbreviated f0, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental and abbreviated f0, is defined as the...

is the lowest (and loudest), and it is determined by the density

Density

The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ . In some cases , density is also defined as its weight per unit volume; although, this quantity is more properly called specific weight...

, length

Length

In geometric measurements, length most commonly refers to the longest dimension of an object.In certain contexts, the term "length" is reserved for a certain dimension of an object along which the length is measured. For example it is possible to cut a length of a wire which is shorter than wire...

and tension

Tension (mechanics)

of the string. This is the frequency that we identify as the pitch

Pitch (music)

Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...

of the string. Above that frequency, overtones (or harmonics) are heard, each one getting quieter the higher it is. For example, if the fundamental pitch is 440 Hz (A above middle C), the overtones for an ideal string tuned to that pitch are 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1760 Hz, 2200 Hz, etc. The note names for those pitches would be A, A, E, A, C#, etc. Due to the physical nature of the strings, however, the higher up the overtones go, the more out of tune (or "false") they are to the fundamental. This is an important consideration for piano tuners

Piano tuning

Piano tuning is the act of making minute adjustments to the tensions of the strings of a piano to properly align the intervals between their tones so that the instrument is in tune. The meaning of the term in tune in the context of piano tuning is not simply a particular fixed set of pitches...

, who try to stretch

Stretched tuning

Stretched tuning is a detail of musical tuning, applied to wire-stringed musical instruments, older, non-digital electric pianos , and some sample-based synthesizers based on these instruments, to accommodate the natural inharmonicity of their vibrating elements...

the tuning across the piano to keep overtones more in tune as they go up the keyboard.

String corrosion

Metal strings offer a unique problem, as they are susceptible to oxidation and corrosion

Corrosion

Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen...

. Wound strings that use metals such as brass or bronze in their winding eventually corrode as moisture and salts from the player's fingers build up oxides on the string. As a result, the string loses its brilliance over time. To help solve this problem, some string manufacturers apply a metal plating

Plating

Plating is a surface covering in which a metal is deposited on a conductive surface. Plating has been done for hundreds of years, but it is also critical for modern technology...

or polymer

Polymer

A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds...

coating to protect the string from corrosion, and some companies sell special lubricating oils which may slow down oxidation.

External links

Identify strings by their silk patterns
The vibrations of strings with both ends fixed
Guitar Strings From The Nineteenth Century To The Advent Of Nylon
Historical types of string
String Calculation; String Measurement; Mass Per Unit Length
Custom String Gauge Design Terry Downs
String Tension - technical information on string tension, with tension calculator

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