Steven Lukes
Encyclopedia
Steven Michael Lukes is a political and social theorist. Currently he is a professor of politics and sociology at New York University
. He was formerly a professor at the University of Siena
, the European University Institute
(Florence) and the London School of Economics
.
in 1962 at Balliol College
, Oxford
. He worked as a research fellow at Nuffield College
and as a lecturer in politics at Worcester College
and completed his M.A.
in 1967. In 1968, he completed his Ph.D. on the work of Émile Durkheim
. From 1966 to 1987 he was fellow and tutor in politics at Balliol College. He is a Fellow of the British Academy
(FBA) and a visiting professor at the University of Paris
, New York University, University of California, San Diego
, and Hebrew University.
From 1974 to 1983 he was President of the Committee for the History of Sociology of the International Sociological Association
.
He was the co-director of the European Forum on Citizenship at the European University Institute from 1995 to 1996.
In April 2006, Lukes married the political commentator and author Katha Pollitt
; this being his third marriage. Lukes was previously a widower. He has three children from his previous marriage to the English barrister Nina Stanger
: freelance journalist Daniel (born 1977), musician Michael (born 1979) and Alexandra (born 1981).
, rationality, the category of the person, Marxism
and ethics, sociology of morality and new forms of liberalism, varieties of conceptions of power
, the notion of the "good society", rationality and relativism, moral conflict and politics.
Lukes's most famous academic theory is that of the "three faces of power". This theory claims that governments control people in three ways: through decision-making power, non decision-making power and ideological power. Decision-making power is the most public of the three faces, and is the manner in which governments want to be seen: the power of governments to make policy
decisions after widespread consultation with opposition parties and the wider public. Non decision-making power is the power that governments have to control the agenda
in debates and make certain issues (such as the possible merits of Communism in the United States) unacceptable for discussion in moderate public forums. The third and most important face of power is ideological power, which is the power to influence people's wishes and thoughts, even making them want things opposed to their own self-interest (such as women supporting a patriarchal society).
He is a member of the editorial board of the European Journal of Sociology and directs a research project on what is left of the socialist
idea in Western and Eastern Europe.
The One Dimensional View of Power focuses only on behavior in decision making, specifically on key issues and essentially only in blatantly observable situations. These often take the form of subjective interests: policy preferences demonstrated through political action.
The Two Dimensional View of Power qualifies the First Dimension's critique of behavior and focuses on decision-making and nondecision-making. It also looks at current and potential issues and expands the focus on observable conflict to those types that might be observed overtly or covertly. But the Two Dimensional View still focuses on subjective interests, though those seen as policy preferences or even grievances.
The Three Dimensional View of Power, offered by Lukes in his work, is a "thoroughgoing critique" of the behavioral focus. It concentrates on the decision-making in a political agenda and the control over that agenda. As in the Two Dimensional View, both current issues and potential issues are considered. But Lukes expands the critique to include both overt and covert observable conflicts, and those that might be latent. Also, Lukes illustrates that a full critique of power should include both subjective interests and those "real" interests that might be held by those excluded by the political process.
New York University
New York University is a private, nonsectarian research university based in New York City. NYU's main campus is situated in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan...
. He was formerly a professor at the University of Siena
University of Siena
The University of Siena in Siena, Tuscany is one of the oldest and first publicly funded universities in Italy. Originally called Studium Senese, the University of Siena was founded in 1240. The University has around 20,000 students, nearly half of Siena's total population of around 54,000...
, the European University Institute
European University Institute
The European University Institute ' in Florence is an international postgraduate and post-doctoral teaching and research institute established by European Union member states to contribute to cultural and scientific development in the social sciences, in a European perspective...
(Florence) and the London School of Economics
London School of Economics
The London School of Economics and Political Science is a public research university specialised in the social sciences located in London, United Kingdom, and a constituent college of the federal University of London...
.
Life and career
Lukes attended the Royal Grammar School in Newcastle upon Tyne, completing his studies there in 1958. Lukes completed his B.A.Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
in 1962 at Balliol College
Balliol College, Oxford
Balliol College , founded in 1263, is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England but founded by a family with strong Scottish connections....
, Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
. He worked as a research fellow at Nuffield College
Nuffield College, Oxford
Nuffield College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It is an all-graduate college and primarily a research establishment, specialising in the social sciences, particularly economics, politics and sociology. It is a research centre in the social sciences...
and as a lecturer in politics at Worcester College
Worcester College, Oxford
Worcester College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The college was founded in the eighteenth century, but its predecessor on the same site had been an institution of learning since the late thirteenth century...
and completed his M.A.
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
in 1967. In 1968, he completed his Ph.D. on the work of Émile Durkheim
Émile Durkheim
David Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with Karl Marx and Max Weber, is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science and father of sociology.Much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies could maintain...
. From 1966 to 1987 he was fellow and tutor in politics at Balliol College. He is a Fellow of the British Academy
British Academy
The British Academy is the United Kingdom's national body for the humanities and the social sciences. Its purpose is to inspire, recognise and support excellence in the humanities and social sciences, throughout the UK and internationally, and to champion their role and value.It receives an annual...
(FBA) and a visiting professor at the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
, New York University, University of California, San Diego
University of California, San Diego
The University of California, San Diego, commonly known as UCSD or UC San Diego, is a public research university located in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego, California, United States...
, and Hebrew University.
From 1974 to 1983 he was President of the Committee for the History of Sociology of the International Sociological Association
International Sociological Association
International Sociological Association is a non-profit organization dedicated to scientific purposes in the field of sociology and social sciences...
.
He was the co-director of the European Forum on Citizenship at the European University Institute from 1995 to 1996.
In April 2006, Lukes married the political commentator and author Katha Pollitt
Katha Pollitt
Katha Pollitt is an American feminist poet, essayist and critic. She is the author of four essay collections and two books of poetry...
; this being his third marriage. Lukes was previously a widower. He has three children from his previous marriage to the English barrister Nina Stanger
Nina Stanger
Nina Stanger .Described by The New Statesman, posthumously, as a radical lawyer, Stanger was a prominent barrister in London during the 1960s. Married to Steven Lukes, she had three children with him: Daniel , Michael , and Alexandra . She moved to Italy with her family in 1987....
: freelance journalist Daniel (born 1977), musician Michael (born 1979) and Alexandra (born 1981).
Academic interests
His main interests are political and social theory, the sociology of Durkheim and his followers, individualismIndividualism
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own...
, rationality, the category of the person, Marxism
Marxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
and ethics, sociology of morality and new forms of liberalism, varieties of conceptions of power
Power (sociology)
Power is a measurement of an entity's ability to control its environment, including the behavior of other entities. The term authority is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to...
, the notion of the "good society", rationality and relativism, moral conflict and politics.
Lukes's most famous academic theory is that of the "three faces of power". This theory claims that governments control people in three ways: through decision-making power, non decision-making power and ideological power. Decision-making power is the most public of the three faces, and is the manner in which governments want to be seen: the power of governments to make policy
Policy
A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome. The term is not normally used to denote what is actually done, this is normally referred to as either procedure or protocol...
decisions after widespread consultation with opposition parties and the wider public. Non decision-making power is the power that governments have to control the agenda
Political agenda
A political agenda is a set of issues and policies laid out by an executive or cabinet in government that tries to influence current and near-future political news and debate....
in debates and make certain issues (such as the possible merits of Communism in the United States) unacceptable for discussion in moderate public forums. The third and most important face of power is ideological power, which is the power to influence people's wishes and thoughts, even making them want things opposed to their own self-interest (such as women supporting a patriarchal society).
He is a member of the editorial board of the European Journal of Sociology and directs a research project on what is left of the socialist
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
idea in Western and Eastern Europe.
The Three Dimensions of Power
The three views of Power previously mentioned are discussed by Lukes in his book, Power: A Radical View. The idea is that the effectiveness and level of power for a given group or individual can be measured by considering certain criteria. The focuses of these views are discussed at length in Lukes' work, and he offers the Third Dimension as his own view of the shortcomings of the other views previously postulated by others, as well as being a more appropriate way to assess power.The One Dimensional View of Power focuses only on behavior in decision making, specifically on key issues and essentially only in blatantly observable situations. These often take the form of subjective interests: policy preferences demonstrated through political action.
The Two Dimensional View of Power qualifies the First Dimension's critique of behavior and focuses on decision-making and nondecision-making. It also looks at current and potential issues and expands the focus on observable conflict to those types that might be observed overtly or covertly. But the Two Dimensional View still focuses on subjective interests, though those seen as policy preferences or even grievances.
The Three Dimensional View of Power, offered by Lukes in his work, is a "thoroughgoing critique" of the behavioral focus. It concentrates on the decision-making in a political agenda and the control over that agenda. As in the Two Dimensional View, both current issues and potential issues are considered. But Lukes expands the critique to include both overt and covert observable conflicts, and those that might be latent. Also, Lukes illustrates that a full critique of power should include both subjective interests and those "real" interests that might be held by those excluded by the political process.
Selected works
- Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work. A Historical and Critical Study (orig. pub. 1972); Penguin BooksPenguin BooksPenguin Books is a publisher founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane and V.K. Krishna Menon. Penguin revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its high quality, inexpensive paperbacks, sold through Woolworths and other high street stores for sixpence. Penguin's success demonstrated that large...
, 1973. - Individualism, New York: Harper & RowHarperCollinsHarperCollins is a publishing company owned by News Corporation. It is the combination of the publishers William Collins, Sons and Co Ltd, a British company, and Harper & Row, an American company, itself the result of an earlier merger of Harper & Brothers and Row, Peterson & Company. The worldwide...
, 1973. ISBN 0-631-14750-0 - Power: a Radical View, MacmillanMacmillan PublishersMacmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately held international publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It has offices in 41 countries worldwide and operates in more than thirty others.-History:...
, 1974; Blackwell, 1986. - Essays in Social Theory, Columbia University PressColumbia University PressColumbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by James D. Jordan and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fields of literary and cultural studies, history, social work, sociology,...
, 1977. - Rationality and Relativism, edited with Martin HollisMartin Hollis (philosopher)Martin Hollis was an English rationalist philosopher. O'Hagan argues that central to Hollis's rationalism was "the epistemological unity of mankind", the view that "some beliefs are universal . ....
, Blackwell, 1982. - Durkheim and the Law, edited with Andrew Scull, Martin Robertson, 1983.
- Marxism and Morality. Clarendon Press, 1985.
- The Category of the Person: Anthropology, Philosophy, History, co-edited with M. Carrithers and S. Collins. Cambridge University PressCambridge University PressCambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the world's oldest publishing house, and the second largest university press in the world...
, 1985. - Moral Conflict and Politics, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
- The essay "Five Fables about Human Rights", in On Human Rights, Susan Hurley and Stephen Shute (eds.), Basic BooksBasic BooksBasic Books is a book publisher founded in 1952 and located in New York. It publishes books in the fields of psychology, philosophy, economics, science, politics, sociology, current affairs, and history.-History:...
, 1993. - Isaiah Berlin: Tra la filosofia e la storia delle idee. Una conversazione con Steven Lukes (Italian), Florence: Ponte alle Grazie, 1994.
- The Curious Enlightenment of Professor Caritat, Verso, 1995.
- Multicultural Questions (ed. jointly), 1999.
- Liberals and Cannibals Verso 2003.
- Power: A Radical View, Macmillan, 2nd Edition, 2005.
- Moral Relativism, Picador/MacmillanMacmillan PublishersMacmillan Publishers Ltd, also known as The Macmillan Group, is a privately held international publishing company owned by Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group. It has offices in 41 countries worldwide and operates in more than thirty others.-History:...
, 2008. ISBN 978-0-312-42719-1