Second Sophistic
Encyclopedia
The Second Sophistic is a literary-historical term referring to the Greek
writers who flourished from the reign of Nero
until c. 230 AD and who were catalogued and celebrated by Philostratus
in his Lives of the Sophists (481). However, some recent research has indicated that this Second Sophistic, which was previously thought to have very suddenly and abruptly appeared in the late 1st century, actually had its roots in the early 1st century. It was followed in the 5th century by the philosophy of Byzantine rhetoric
, sometimes referred to as the "Third Sophistic."
Writers known as members of the Second Sophistic include Aelius Aristides
, Dio Chrysostom
, Herodes Atticus
, Philostratus
, Lucian
, and Polemon of Laodicea. Plutarch
is also often associated with the Second Sophistic movement as well, although many historians consider him to have been somewhat aloof from its emphasis on rhetoric, especially in his later work.
marks the moment in history in which the Romans conquered one of the first civilized empires in the West. Ancient Greece
is known for its rich culture, mythology, technology and intellect. In its Classical Period
it was one of the greatest early empires. After the civilization fell to the Roman Conquest, the emerging empire would begin to grow following many of the traditions of the Greeks. Mirroring some of their architectural styles and adapting a similar religious cult, the Empire held the Greek culture with reverence to its customs. Throughout its growth, the Romans incorporated the Greeks into their society and imperial life. In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD a renaissance of Hellenic oratory and education captivated the Roman elites. The resurgence was called the Second Sophistic and it recalled the grand orators and teachings of the 5th century BC. “The sophist was to revive the antique purer form of religion and to encourage the cults of the heroes and Homeric gods.”
In this century, the Roman Emperors such as Trajan
, Hadrian
and numerous others, held these intellectuals in their high esteem. Many of them paid patronage to Athens
and other Greek cities in the Empire. Elites sent their sons to be educated in schools developed by these sophists. The Emperor Hadrian sent his ‘son’ Antoninus
to study under the acclaimed Polemo in Smyrna
. The Second Sophistic opened doors for the Greeks to prosper surprisingly, in many ways on their own terms. This renaissance enabled them to become a prominent society that the Romans could respect and revere. The sophists and their movement provided a way for the Romans to legitimatize themselves as civilized intellectuals and associate themselves with an old imperial pre-eminence. This movement allowed the Greeks to become a part of the Roman Empire
but still retain their cultural identity.
and oratory
. The practice and teachings were modeled after the Athenian vocabulary of 400 BC
, as well as the Hellenic traditions of that time. The sophists were great lecturers and declaimers who esteemed to address various issues of political, economic and social importance. Thus, they served a vast array of positions from educational and social leaders, to ambassadors, Imperial Secretaries and high priests. In these orders, they won the favor of Emperors who would restore their eastern centers of intellect. Some like Lucian
were steeply into Atticism
(an artificial purest movement favoring archaic expressions). While others like Plutarch
were obviously much more akin to the Greek of their day.
A. Oratory
A resurgence of educational value occurred during this time and these sophists were at the heart of it. They emphasized the importance of the practice of oratory. Sophists would begin their careers lecturing to groups of students. As they gained recognition and further competence they would begin speaking out to the public. There were two different oratory styles of sophism that developed out of the period of enlightenment: Asianism
and Atticism
.
1. Asianism
A later sophist who wrote one of the only remaining accounts of these great orators in his Lives of the Sophists, Philostratus
describes Asianism as a form that “…aims at but never achieves the grand style.” He adds that its style is more, “flowery, bombastic, full of startling metaphors, too metrical, too dependent on the tricks of rhetoric, too emotional.” This type of rhetoric is also sometimes referred to as “Ionia
n” and “Ephesian”, because it came from outside of Athens. The historical sophist criticized its form calling it, “theatrical shamelessness”. It seems that this approach of oratory tended to put more emphasis on form, passion and sentiment rather than prudent realities.
2. Atticism
In contrast, the other mode of rhetoric, Atticism, is explained by Philostratus as technique that is exemplified by the sophist Aelius Aristides
. He describes Aristides as one who, “usually imitates some classical author, aims at simplicity of style, and is a purist, carefully avoiding any allusion or word that does not occur in a writer of the classical period.” Atticism drew from Greece’s rich past and originated in its illustrious city of Athens. This is where the majority of the classic Hellenistic culture was cultivated. The impressive lectures and declamations of these sophists were based more upon preparation and the studying of information. Having this basis, they were then able to speak more adeptly about the topics to their audiences. The sophists generally gave their discourses in Rome or one of three major sophist centers.
B. Rhetoric
The three main centers of sophism lay east of the imperial capital of Rome
. They were the core of ancient intellectualism; Ephesus
, Smyrna
and Athens
. The sophists revitalized these cities bringing in wealth, acclaim and foreign interest from around the Empire. They were the ones responsible for providing benefactions to the city and resolving the disputes of its citizens.
1. Smyrna
Smyrna was an important Greek city in the Empire at this age. Two noteworthy sophists were educated and taught in this center; attracting the respect of its citizens. They also invited the attention or patronage of Roman Emperors such as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Although neither of these men called the city their birthplace, both Polemo of Laodicea and Aelius Aristides spent much of their time here studying the rhetoric or advocating for its people. Another esteemed sophist in the 2nd century, Herodes Atticus
, paved the way for succeeding sophists of Atticism in the great center of Athens.
These three eminent connoisseurs of rhetoric were significant sophists of the 2nd century AD. Many succeeding them would strive to replicate and illustrate their immense knowledge of the Hellenic classics and eloquent skills in oratory. Out of all of the Second Sophistic orators, these men possessed significant esteem in the eyes of Emperors. They also provided their provincial regions as well as other areas of the Empire with an abundance of benefactions.
2. Polemo of Laodicea
Polemo of Laodicea was the earliest of the trio. He was born in approximately 85 AD and is the only Asianic orator of Symerna. Like so many of the other sophists, Polemo came from a ranked family. He, therefore, had connections and status with the local administration and it was easy for him to thrive in political and social aspects. Being from an elite family provided him the means and footing to be able study the sophistic discipline. His wealth and political connections allowed him to travel and prosper in his role as an expert of robust rhetoric. Not only was Polemo admired in Smyrna and other surrounding Greek centers of intellect, he was quite popular and venerated in Rome as well. He acted as a sort of ambassador to the Empire for his area. Polemo found a great deal of favor in the eyes of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus . They bestowed many luxuries upon the sophist.
3. Herodes Atticus
The Roman elites and Emperors valued the approval and sponsorship of acclaimed sophists. Herodes Atticus, at one point in time, received up to three letters a day from Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Emperor also waited three days in Smyrna for the honor of meeting the student of Herodes and Polemo, Aelius Aristides. He then was required to wait one more day, before he was allowed to hear him speak. The man at the supposedly highest standing in the entire Empire was subject to the convenience of a man conventionally considered to be of a lower rank.
Greek literature
Greek literature refers to writings composed in areas of Greek influence, typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects, throughout the whole period in which the Greek-speaking people have existed.-Ancient Greek literature :...
writers who flourished from the reign of Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
until c. 230 AD and who were catalogued and celebrated by Philostratus
Philostratus
Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus , , called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He was born probably around 172, and is said by the Suda to have been living in the reign of emperor Philip the Arab . His death...
in his Lives of the Sophists (481). However, some recent research has indicated that this Second Sophistic, which was previously thought to have very suddenly and abruptly appeared in the late 1st century, actually had its roots in the early 1st century. It was followed in the 5th century by the philosophy of Byzantine rhetoric
Byzantine rhetoric
Byzantine Rhetoric followed largely the precepts of ancient Greek rhetoricians, especially those belonging to the Second Sophistic that extended from the time of Augustus through the fifth century AD....
, sometimes referred to as the "Third Sophistic."
Writers known as members of the Second Sophistic include Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides was a popular Greek orator , who lived during the Roman Empire. He is considered to be a prime example of the Second Sophistic, a group of showpiece orators who flourished from the reign of Nero until ca. 230 AD. His surname was Theodorus...
, Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom , Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. Eighty of his Discourses are extant, as well as a few Letters and a funny mock essay In Praise of Hair, as well as a few other fragments...
, Herodes Atticus
Herodes Atticus
Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, otherwise known as Herodes Atticus was a very distinguished, rich Greek aristocrat who served as a Roman Senator and a Sophist. He is notable as a proponent in the Second Sophistic by Philostratus.-Ancestry and Family:Herodes Atticus...
, Philostratus
Philostratus
Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus , , called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He was born probably around 172, and is said by the Suda to have been living in the reign of emperor Philip the Arab . His death...
, Lucian
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata was a rhetorician and satirist who wrote in the Greek language. He is noted for his witty and scoffing nature.His ethnicity is disputed and is attributed as Assyrian according to Frye and Parpola, and Syrian according to Joseph....
, and Polemon of Laodicea. Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
is also often associated with the Second Sophistic movement as well, although many historians consider him to have been somewhat aloof from its emphasis on rhetoric, especially in his later work.
Introduction
The year 146 BC146 BC
Year 146 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Achaicus...
marks the moment in history in which the Romans conquered one of the first civilized empires in the West. Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
is known for its rich culture, mythology, technology and intellect. In its Classical Period
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
it was one of the greatest early empires. After the civilization fell to the Roman Conquest, the emerging empire would begin to grow following many of the traditions of the Greeks. Mirroring some of their architectural styles and adapting a similar religious cult, the Empire held the Greek culture with reverence to its customs. Throughout its growth, the Romans incorporated the Greeks into their society and imperial life. In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD a renaissance of Hellenic oratory and education captivated the Roman elites. The resurgence was called the Second Sophistic and it recalled the grand orators and teachings of the 5th century BC. “The sophist was to revive the antique purer form of religion and to encourage the cults of the heroes and Homeric gods.”
In this century, the Roman Emperors such as Trajan
Trajan
Trajan , was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, in Spain Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in Spain, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against...
, Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
and numerous others, held these intellectuals in their high esteem. Many of them paid patronage to Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
and other Greek cities in the Empire. Elites sent their sons to be educated in schools developed by these sophists. The Emperor Hadrian sent his ‘son’ Antoninus
Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius , also known as Antoninus, was Roman Emperor from 138 to 161. He was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty and the Aurelii. He did not possess the sobriquet "Pius" until after his accession to the throne...
to study under the acclaimed Polemo in Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
. The Second Sophistic opened doors for the Greeks to prosper surprisingly, in many ways on their own terms. This renaissance enabled them to become a prominent society that the Romans could respect and revere. The sophists and their movement provided a way for the Romans to legitimatize themselves as civilized intellectuals and associate themselves with an old imperial pre-eminence. This movement allowed the Greeks to become a part of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
but still retain their cultural identity.
Definition of Sophist
Sophism was the revival of the use and value of higher education in the Roman Empire during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. This also included a renewed emphasis and importance of rhetoricRhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
and oratory
Oratory
Oratory is a type of public speaking.Oratory may also refer to:* Oratory , a power metal band* Oratory , a place of worship* a religious order such as** Oratory of Saint Philip Neri ** Oratory of Jesus...
. The practice and teachings were modeled after the Athenian vocabulary of 400 BC
400 BC
Year 400 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Esquilinus, Capitolinus, Vulso, Medullinus, Saccus and Vulscus...
, as well as the Hellenic traditions of that time. The sophists were great lecturers and declaimers who esteemed to address various issues of political, economic and social importance. Thus, they served a vast array of positions from educational and social leaders, to ambassadors, Imperial Secretaries and high priests. In these orders, they won the favor of Emperors who would restore their eastern centers of intellect. Some like Lucian
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata was a rhetorician and satirist who wrote in the Greek language. He is noted for his witty and scoffing nature.His ethnicity is disputed and is attributed as Assyrian according to Frye and Parpola, and Syrian according to Joseph....
were steeply into Atticism
Atticism
Atticism was a rhetorical movement that began in the first quarter of the 1st century BC; it may also refer to the wordings and phrasings typical of this movement, in contrast with spoken Greek, which continued to evolve in directions guided by the common usages of Hellenistic Greek.Atticism was...
(an artificial purest movement favoring archaic expressions). While others like Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
were obviously much more akin to the Greek of their day.
A. Oratory
A resurgence of educational value occurred during this time and these sophists were at the heart of it. They emphasized the importance of the practice of oratory. Sophists would begin their careers lecturing to groups of students. As they gained recognition and further competence they would begin speaking out to the public. There were two different oratory styles of sophism that developed out of the period of enlightenment: Asianism
Asiatic style
The Asiatic style or Asianism |Brutus]] 325) refers to an Ancient Greek rhetorical tendency that arose in the third century BC, which later became an important point of reference in debates about Roman oratory....
and Atticism
Atticism
Atticism was a rhetorical movement that began in the first quarter of the 1st century BC; it may also refer to the wordings and phrasings typical of this movement, in contrast with spoken Greek, which continued to evolve in directions guided by the common usages of Hellenistic Greek.Atticism was...
.
1. Asianism
A later sophist who wrote one of the only remaining accounts of these great orators in his Lives of the Sophists, Philostratus
Philostratus
Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus , , called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He was born probably around 172, and is said by the Suda to have been living in the reign of emperor Philip the Arab . His death...
describes Asianism as a form that “…aims at but never achieves the grand style.” He adds that its style is more, “flowery, bombastic, full of startling metaphors, too metrical, too dependent on the tricks of rhetoric, too emotional.” This type of rhetoric is also sometimes referred to as “Ionia
Ionia
Ionia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
n” and “Ephesian”, because it came from outside of Athens. The historical sophist criticized its form calling it, “theatrical shamelessness”. It seems that this approach of oratory tended to put more emphasis on form, passion and sentiment rather than prudent realities.
2. Atticism
In contrast, the other mode of rhetoric, Atticism, is explained by Philostratus as technique that is exemplified by the sophist Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides was a popular Greek orator , who lived during the Roman Empire. He is considered to be a prime example of the Second Sophistic, a group of showpiece orators who flourished from the reign of Nero until ca. 230 AD. His surname was Theodorus...
. He describes Aristides as one who, “usually imitates some classical author, aims at simplicity of style, and is a purist, carefully avoiding any allusion or word that does not occur in a writer of the classical period.” Atticism drew from Greece’s rich past and originated in its illustrious city of Athens. This is where the majority of the classic Hellenistic culture was cultivated. The impressive lectures and declamations of these sophists were based more upon preparation and the studying of information. Having this basis, they were then able to speak more adeptly about the topics to their audiences. The sophists generally gave their discourses in Rome or one of three major sophist centers.
B. Rhetoric
The three main centers of sophism lay east of the imperial capital of Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. They were the core of ancient intellectualism; Ephesus
Ephesus
Ephesus was an ancient Greek city, and later a major Roman city, on the west coast of Asia Minor, near present-day Selçuk, Izmir Province, Turkey. It was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League during the Classical Greek era...
, Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
and Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
. The sophists revitalized these cities bringing in wealth, acclaim and foreign interest from around the Empire. They were the ones responsible for providing benefactions to the city and resolving the disputes of its citizens.
1. Smyrna
Smyrna was an important Greek city in the Empire at this age. Two noteworthy sophists were educated and taught in this center; attracting the respect of its citizens. They also invited the attention or patronage of Roman Emperors such as Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. Although neither of these men called the city their birthplace, both Polemo of Laodicea and Aelius Aristides spent much of their time here studying the rhetoric or advocating for its people. Another esteemed sophist in the 2nd century, Herodes Atticus
Herodes Atticus
Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, otherwise known as Herodes Atticus was a very distinguished, rich Greek aristocrat who served as a Roman Senator and a Sophist. He is notable as a proponent in the Second Sophistic by Philostratus.-Ancestry and Family:Herodes Atticus...
, paved the way for succeeding sophists of Atticism in the great center of Athens.
These three eminent connoisseurs of rhetoric were significant sophists of the 2nd century AD. Many succeeding them would strive to replicate and illustrate their immense knowledge of the Hellenic classics and eloquent skills in oratory. Out of all of the Second Sophistic orators, these men possessed significant esteem in the eyes of Emperors. They also provided their provincial regions as well as other areas of the Empire with an abundance of benefactions.
2. Polemo of Laodicea
Polemo of Laodicea was the earliest of the trio. He was born in approximately 85 AD and is the only Asianic orator of Symerna. Like so many of the other sophists, Polemo came from a ranked family. He, therefore, had connections and status with the local administration and it was easy for him to thrive in political and social aspects. Being from an elite family provided him the means and footing to be able study the sophistic discipline. His wealth and political connections allowed him to travel and prosper in his role as an expert of robust rhetoric. Not only was Polemo admired in Smyrna and other surrounding Greek centers of intellect, he was quite popular and venerated in Rome as well. He acted as a sort of ambassador to the Empire for his area. Polemo found a great deal of favor in the eyes of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus . They bestowed many luxuries upon the sophist.
3. Herodes Atticus
The Roman elites and Emperors valued the approval and sponsorship of acclaimed sophists. Herodes Atticus, at one point in time, received up to three letters a day from Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Emperor also waited three days in Smyrna for the honor of meeting the student of Herodes and Polemo, Aelius Aristides. He then was required to wait one more day, before he was allowed to hear him speak. The man at the supposedly highest standing in the entire Empire was subject to the convenience of a man conventionally considered to be of a lower rank.
Conclusion
It seems that the association and a positive close relationship with these experts of rhetoric were coveted by these imperial officials. The sophists were held with high regard by those in surrounding regions and even by Roman elites and bureaucrats. “No other type of intellectual could compete with them in popularity, no creative artists existed to challenge their prestige at the courts of phil-Hellenic Emperors, and though the sophists often show jealousy of the philosophers, philosophy without eloquence was nowhere.” Not only were the wealthy citizens encouraging their sons to follow the sophistic profession, but nobles were more than proud to claim relation with celebrated sophists.Literature
- Aelius P. Aristides, The Complete Works Vol. 1. Trans. Behr, C.A. The Netherlands: Brill, E.J., Leiden, 1986.
- G.W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire. (1969 Oxford)
- Jaap-Jan Flinterman, Power, paideia & pythagoreanism. Greek identity, conceptions of the relationship between philosophers and monarchs and political ideas in Philostratus' Life of Apollonius (1995 Amsterdam)
- Maud Gleason, Making men. Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome (1995)
- Philostratus, The Lives of the Sophists. Trans. Wright, W.C. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961.
- Simon Swain, Hellenism and Empire. Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250 (1996 Oxford)
- Tim Whitmarsh, The Second Sophistic (2005 Oxford)
- Tim Whitmarsh, Greek Literature and the Roman Empire (2001 Oxford)
- The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. XI. 2nd Ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.